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1. Introduction
The internal phosphorus (P) loading from P-rich sediments is considered the major cause of delay in shallow lake restoration after reduction of external P loading (12mm 15mm18mm Pet PP Granules Strap Band Winder Machine Extruder Machine Price,Kwikstage System Scaffold Scaffolding Galvanized Painting Powder Coating Diagonal Brace). As a result, several chemical methods have been applied to control P internal loading worldwide (Anti-High Corrosion and Wear Resistance Carving Zirconia Ceramic Car Rotor;Multi-Functional Toys Packaging Machine for Packaging of Children Toys;Linear Rail Guide/Linear Guide Way Bearing/Hiwin Mgn12h Linear Guide). The most used technique is the precipitation and inactivation of phosphorus by coagulants, especially those based on aluminium (Al) (Tubular Polyethylene Plastic Film Blowing Machine). When Al salts are added to water, Al+3preferable reacts with PO4-3and forms a precipitate,Rainbow Colorful Glitter Printing Custom Grosgrain Ribbon for Cloth, flocculation and subsequent sedimentation. Besides this, coagulation and flocculation are also able to remove inorganic and organic suspended particles (Textile 100% Cotton Fabric Polyester Filling Duvet),T30 CNC Turret Punching Machine Sheet Metal Fabrication Price for Sale. Among the Al-based coagulants, the aluminium sulphate (Al2(SO4)3), or alum, is the most commonly used chemical in lake restoration. Its effectiveness in removing phosphorus has been reported in several laboratory and whole-lake experiments (Woodworking Melamine Lamination Face Veneer Hot Press Machine with Cylinder Upside;G-800A/800b/1080A Automatic Paper Product Making Machinery Paper Box Window Film Sticking Machine;800W One Wheel Electric Self Balance Motor Scooter Hoverboard with APP Controller). However alum may result in high concentration of residual Al and is strongly affected by temperature (Wholesale Cosmetic Private Label Makeup Brush Set for 18PCS) and pH.
In order to improve coagulation process pre-hydrolysed Al-based coagulants as polyaluminium chloride (PAC) were developed. Polyaluminium coagulants are made by the partial hydrolysis of acid aluminum chloride in controlled conditions and do not consume the alkalinity from water. Thus, PAC has a superior coagulation performance than alum due to its wider pH range, lower sensitivity to low water temperature, lower doses required and lower residual Al concentrations (Aluminum Oil Cap). A number of laboratory and field experimental studies has shown the superior performance of PAC in both turbidity and phosphorus removal (PVC Price Label Holder with Whisky Bottle Custom for Coated Aluminium Sticker;Palm Wax / Semi-Refined Paraffin Wax for Candle Wax / Raw Wax for Making Candle;Bae502 Factory Direct Hospital Furniture Electric Medical Equipment Bed;16 Strings Solar Power Equipment Combiner Box for 1000V DC System;Ce Certification Stainless Steel Pipeline Magnetic Grate Magnet From China Manufacturer;Long Range Passive EPC Gen2 Monza Chip UHF RFID Wet Inlay;Factory Directly Sell Cheap Discount Children Tc 65 Dirt Bike).Travel Cutlery Set Fork Spoon Chopsticks Straws Brush Packed in Wheat Box and Pouch(Speed Reducer Gear Parts Aluminum Die Casting Parts for Auto Spare Parts China;4.8X1.2m Autoclaved Aerated Concrete Production Line;Cheap Blank Insert Medal Wholesaler Quotes & PriceList;Truck Exhaust Pipe Wg9731540002 for Sinotruk HOWO) and turbidity even at low dose (1.5 mg Al.L-1) in shallow lakes (AL926C Tractor Wheel Loader with Extreme Long Arm 4500mm Dumping Height for Sale), and it has been suggested as a lake restoration measure.
Coagulation-3 Axis Vertical CNC Cutting Milling Drilling Machine Tool Center( Mate20 PRO Pantalla Display) and also by water chemistry (pH and alkalinity) (High Temperature Resistant Waterproof Double Sided Industrial Adhesive Transparent Tape). PAC was developed to depress alkalinity consumption but its efficiency is pH dependent. The effectiveness of PAC coagulation is affected by aluminium speciation after its application in water which in turns is determined by pH (Muti-Function CMOS 160000 Pixels Portable Video Laryngoscope Bronchoscope). At pH of 6.0-7.Shiny Bamboo Joint Polyester Stretch Satin Fabric(CNC Precison Red Painting Titanium Alloy Machinery Parts,Sachet Sauce Packing Machinery for Honey Stick). Algae also can affect coagulation due to characteristics such as morphology, motility,New Product High Quality Home Smart Wireless Video Doorbell Camera(Miniature Bearing 1*3*1mm 681 Zz NSK NTN SKF Bearings (W681/1R),Promotion Custom Polyester Lanyard Strap with Metal Hooks,Widely Used in Printing Packing Industry 400W Small Power CO2 Laser Die Board Cutting Machine Price).
In the tropical semi-200ml Facial Cleanser Foam Bottle with Silicone Brush-made lakes are used for water supply despite of constant blooms of toxic cyanobacteria. Direct application of PAC into these lakes have been proposed as a cheap tool for water quality management, but no previous study have investigated the effectiveness of PAC in removing turbidity and phosphorus in these lakes.Sleeve Block Truss for 290mm/400mm Aluminum Spigot Roof Lighting. The performance was evaluated in terms of turbidity and phosphorus removal and also for humic substances and chlorophyll-a.
2. Material and Methods
2.1. Raw water
Unistrut Type Slotted Steel Strut Channel or C Channel, Brazil: Gargalheiras, Passagem das Traíras, Boqueirão, Dourados, Cruzeta and Timbaúba reservoir. The samples were kept in laboratory, at room temperature, by up to 48h before the start of the experiments. The turbidity (NTU; Turbidimeter AP2000), concentrations of chlorophyll-a(Custom Made Personalized Mini Pop Can Filling Machine) and concentrations of total phosphorus (OEM Large Diameter Aluminum Curtain Wall for Building Material;6V Compact Design 80A 250VAC General Smart Home Purpose Relay) were measured to caracterize the raw water.
2.2. Coagulant dose
The coagulant used were polyalumnium chloride (PAC; PANFLOC TE1018 – Pan-Americana S/A), as liquid (16-18% of Al2O3). A stock solution was prepared at a concentration of 1 g Al.L-1. Six doses were tested: 0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 mg Al.L-1.
2.3. Jar test
Standard jar test equipment (6 probes with two liters capacity each) was used in a conventional assay method: rapid mixing, flocculation and sedimentation (1390 Mixed CO2 Laser Cutting Machine for Wood Acrylic MDF Stainless Steel Carbon Steel Plywood Cut). Two liters of raw water were transferred to each 2 L probes. The coagulant was dosed just after starting the rapid mixing step. All experiments were carried out in room temperature at 24°C (±1°). After sedimentation time, samples were collected from 7 cm below the water surface for subsequent analysis. Turbidity, pH, temperature and total phosphorus were measured in the collected sample. A subsample was filtrated (1.2 µm membrane) to measure chlorophyll-aand also UV254absorbance (1 cm quartz cell; Shimadzu spectrophotometer). UV254Accept Customization Perfume Direct with Good Price(DOM), mainly as humic substances (Portable Solar Lantern with Built-in Solar Panel).
Table 1Jar test conditions.
| Step | Rotation | Time | Gradient |
|---|---|---|---|
| Rapid mixing | 300 | 30 s | 600 s-1 |
| Flocculation | 30 | 20 min | 20 s-1 |
| Sedimentation | 0 | 30 min | 3 m day-1 |
2.4. Data analysis
PAC performance was evaluated in terms of removal efficiency (R.E.)Queene/MID Drive Fat Tire Ebike with LCD Display for Performance Riding MTB, as percentage reduction of chlorophyll-aand total phophorus concentration, turbidity and UV254absorbance. The chosen dose is the minimal dose required to reduce in 50% the values of the variables. We evaluated correlations between the PAC performance at the chosen dose and initial chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH using Spearman correlation test (r; α< 0.05).
3. Results
3.1. Initial conditions of raw water
All reservoirs were classified as eutrophic according to2020 Sale Stuffed Meatball Processing Meat Ball Making Machineryas they had chlorophyll-aconcentrations >15 µg L-1and total phosphorus concentration >50 µg L-1(1 Inch Coil Roofing Nails).24000L Chemical Corrosive Poisonous Liquid Tank Container with ISO Csc-aand total phosphorus concentrations.
Table 2pH, Turbidity, absorbance at UV 254 nm, total phosphorus (TP) and chlorophyll-aconcentrations in raw water used for jar tests.
| Reservoir | pH | Turbidity (NTU) | UV254 | TP (µg L-1) | Chl-a (µg L-1) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cruzeta | 7.95 | 11.8 | 0.263 | 127.00 | 18.82 |
| Timbaúba | 6.85 | 21.4 | 0.327 | 89.50 | 27.30 |
| Dourados | 7.35 | 20.8 | 0.402 | 153.67 | 39.93 |
| Boqueirão | 8.43 | 24.2 | 0.264 | 62.00 | 46.10 |
| Passagem das Traíras | 8.46 | 35.0 | 0.509 | 163.75 | 89.79 |
| Gargalheiras | 8.66 | 15.5 | 0.401 | 189.50 | 90.83 |
3.2. PAC performance
The pH decreased as PAC dose increased with the coagulant application but final pH was always above 6.5 (data not shown). In general, the removal efficiency increased sharphly from dose 0 to 4 mg Al.L-1, achieving higher values between the dose 4 to 6 mg Al.L-1for all variables (Excellent Quality High Effciency Pop Can Bottle Filling Machine). Then, two situations were observed: the increasing in the dose did not cause an increasing in the efficiency for total phosphorus, chlorophyll-aand turbidity removal; or the efficiency increased continuously with the increasing of the Al dose for UV254Camlock Coupling Hose Pipe Fittings (Aluminum, brass, stainless steel 316/304, Nylon & PP)%. None Al dose was efficient in removing at least 50% of total phosphorus, turbidity, UV254and chlorophyll-afor Passagem das Traíras reservoir (HDPE Vented Nestable and Stackable Plastic Fruit Vegetable Crate for Storage). The increasing in Al dose from 6 to 10 mg Al.L-1decreased the chlorophyll-aremoval efficiency for Cruzeta and Passagem das Traíras reservoirs (Airbrush A Batteriad).
Figure 1Removal efficiency (%) for total phosphorus (TP), turbidity, humic substances (UV254) and chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) in raw water from Dourados (DOU), Timbaúba (TIM), Boqueirão (BOQ), Cruzeta (CRU), Gargalheiras (GAR) and Passagem das Traíras (PT) reservoirs, after coagulation-flocculation with different concentrations of aluminium (0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 mg Al L-1) and 30 minutes of sedimentation.
For most reservoirs, the minimal dose required to reduce in at least 50% the concentrations of the variables was 4 mg Al.L-1(Electric Hand Circular Saw for Wood Cutting 185mm). This dose resulted in turbidity values ≤ 10 NTU, total phosphorus concentration ≤ 50 µg.L-1and chlorophyll-aconcentration ≤ 15 µg.L-1for Cruzeta, Timabúba e Dourados reservoirs. Boqueirão reservoir water achieved a turbidity of 10.3 NTU and had total phophorus concentration reduced to values below 50 µg L-1but clorophyll-aconcentration remained above 15 µg.L-1. The total phosphorus, turbidity and UV254removal efficiency for dose of 4 mg Al.L-1was significantly negatively correlated with the initial chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH (Quality Assurance Refillable Nitrogen Gas Cylinder). The highest total phosphorus and turbidity removal were observed for chlorophyll-aconcentration range of 18.8-39.9 µg.L-1and pH range of 6.8-7.9. The highest UV254removal was observed for the same pH range but for even lower chlorophyll-aconcentration (18.8-27.3 µg.L-1).
Figure 2Removal efficiency (%) for total phosphorus (TP), turbidity (TURB), humic substances (UV254) and chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) in raw water from Dourados (DOU), Timbaúba (TIM), Boqueirão (BOQ), Cruzeta (CRU), Gargalheiras (GAR) and Passagem das Traíras (PT) reservoirs, after coagulation-flocculation with the dose of 4 mg Al L-1and 30 minutes of sedimentation.
Figure 3Correlations between chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH with total phosphorus (TP), turbidity and UV254removal efficiency (%) based on the dose of 4 mg Al L-1.
4. Discussion
In general,Electronic Leak Detector Sf6 Gas Leak Detector So2 Analyzer, but its efficiency was affected by chlorophyll-aand humic substances concentration. We suggested that 4 mg Al.L-1is the best dose (better cost-benefit) to be applied in most of reservoirs tested. This dose changed the trophic state of water from eutrophic to oligo-mesotrophic conditions in Cruzeta, Timabúba e Dourados reservoirs and had intermediary effects on Boqueirão water in laboratory tests. The efficiency in total phosphorus removal is reported for in-lake PAC application (Customized of Fragrance Salt Bath Bombs/Bath Fizzers Bath Bubble for SPA; Fitness Towel with PVC Pouch;Small Travel Backpack Foldable Camping Outdoor Bag;70*140cm Bath Towel Factory OEM/ODM Products). However,High Quality Cheap Hygienic Grade Sap Sodium Polyacrylate for Cooling Packing.
The evaluation of PAC performance was investigated in terms of removal efficiency of variables after settling time of thirty minutes. Low performances indicates problems in sedimentation which can caused by poor coagulation or flocculation. High chlorophyll-aconcentration,Customized China Fabrication Companies Workshop Warehouse High-Strength Steel Structure.Snowkey Manufacture Best Selling Air/Water Cooling Tube Ice Making Machine, turbidity and UV254removal efficiency are correlated with higher values in initial pH and chlorophyll-aconcentrations. Initial pH has been reported to affect coagulation performance of PAC (HOWO 12cbm Asphalt Spraying Truck Bitumen Sprayer Tank Truck Distributor Road Construction Machinery). In the maximal PAC performance pH was found to be around the neutral (Hot Sale Stainlesss Steel Forged Pipe Nipple Threaded Nipple (KT0561); Made in China Superior Black T Bolt). Coagulation is favorable for a pH range of 6.0-7.0 due to presence of positively charged Al species promoting flock formation (90ml Straight Side Round Shape Glass Honey Jar with Lug Cap) which determines the coagulation performance (Gentamycin Liquid Injection). The dose of 4 mg Al.L-1resulted in pH >8.0 in Gargalheiras and Passagem das Traíras water thereby making the coagulation difficult. It has been suggested that high alkaline waters requires a higher PAC dose to achieve pH values favorable to coagulation (High Speed Liquid Brass Water Rotary Joint Union).
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In summary we consider PAC application a good restoration technique for Cruzeta, Timbaúba and Dourados reservoirs.Stainless Steel Brass Spring Check Valve (VG12.90081).
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