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1. Introduction
The internal phosphorus (P) loading from P-rich sediments is considered the major cause of delay in shallow lake restoration after reduction of external P loading (Protective Covers /Surplus Groundwater Storage Lagoons and Barren and Processing Pond Liner,Wireless Charging Alarm Clock Docking Station Music Player for Mobile). As a result, several chemical methods have been applied to control P internal loading worldwide (Small Mini Homemade Grain Corn Maize Powder Feed Grinding Mill;Impa651710 Marine Wholesale Seawater Thermometer;Hot Sell Brass Anti-Odor Floor Drain 4 Inches Roof Drains). The most used technique is the precipitation and inactivation of phosphorus by coagulants, especially those based on aluminium (Al) (8 Seaters Solid Surface Quartz Dining Table and Chair). When Al salts are added to water, Al+3preferable reacts with PO4-3and forms a precipitate,1390 Mixed CO2 Laser Cutting Machine for Wood Acrylic MDF Stainless Steel Carbon Steel Plywood Cut, flocculation and subsequent sedimentation. Besides this, coagulation and flocculation are also able to remove inorganic and organic suspended particles (Automatic Quilting Machine Products Made in China),Water Heater Single Head Shrinking Machine. Among the Al-based coagulants, the aluminium sulphate (Al2(SO4)3), or alum, is the most commonly used chemical in lake restoration. Its effectiveness in removing phosphorus has been reported in several laboratory and whole-lake experiments (Plastic Traveling Pet Crate Dog and Cat with Wheels and Handle Travel Cage;Construction Product Metal Steel Galvanized Flooring Deck for Wholesaler;AC 110V- AC 230V 50Hz Power Supply Sound Box with 15inch). However alum may result in high concentration of residual Al and is strongly affected by temperature (Jumbo Roll Two/Double Sided Coated Solvent Base Tissue Tape (DTS10G-11)) and pH.
In order to improve coagulation process pre-hydrolysed Al-based coagulants as polyaluminium chloride (PAC) were developed. Polyaluminium coagulants are made by the partial hydrolysis of acid aluminum chloride in controlled conditions and do not consume the alkalinity from water. Thus, PAC has a superior coagulation performance than alum due to its wider pH range, lower sensitivity to low water temperature, lower doses required and lower residual Al concentrations (Mini Handheld Sewing Machine). A number of laboratory and field experimental studies has shown the superior performance of PAC in both turbidity and phosphorus removal (Perfect Protection for Guideways of Stainless Steel Telescopic Way;Green&Health High Quality Modular Cold Room Storage for Fruits and Vegetable;The Full Thread Bolt with Square Shape Head From Guangzhou;HYD512 Multicolor Machine Series Roll to Roll Screen Printing Machine;1000uh 300ma axial inductor;High Quality ABS Nylon Stainless Steel Bathroom Shower Chairs for Elderly;Quick Dry Polyester Mesh Basketball Short Pant Soccer Short Pant Basketball Casual).Discount HOWO High Pressure LPG Delivery Dispenser Truck(Solar Energy Battery Storage All-in-One Battery Storage System Output Power Factor PF=1.0;Biometric Fingerprint and RFID Card Access Control Reader Sf1;Heavy Duty Stainless Steel or Zinc Plated Rubber Lined Pipe Clips;from China to Brazil Brasilia reliable low rates Shipping Logistics Air Freight Forwarder) and turbidity even at low dose (1.5 mg Al.L-1) in shallow lakes (Dual Color 60W LED Spot Work Lamp Lighting with DRL), and it has been suggested as a lake restoration measure.
Coagulation-Ldd-100 High Efficient Electric DTH Drilling Machine(Fashion Excellent Quality Full Color Small Quantity Hardcover Book Printing) and also by water chemistry (pH and alkalinity) (Automatic Magnetic Induction Heater for Band Saw Quenching Production System). PAC was developed to depress alkalinity consumption but its efficiency is pH dependent. The effectiveness of PAC coagulation is affected by aluminium speciation after its application in water which in turns is determined by pH (Merino Wool Fabric Sleep Beauty Natural Modern Latex Mattress). At pH of 6.0-7.Stainless Steel Tube Electric Heater Industrial Immersion Cartridge Heater(2019 Smile Rabbit LED Silicone Night Light 7 Colors Desk Table Lamp For Kids,380V50Hz Hitachi Scroll Compressor 503dh-83c2 with Gas R22). Algae also can affect coagulation due to characteristics such as morphology, motility,Ss 304 304L 316 316L 321 310S Stainless Steel Tube(Factory Direct Sell Spices Coffee Beans Grinding Machine/Herb Grinder Machine with Cyclone,Colorful Aluminum Cream Jar for Cosmetic Packaging,250ml Small Size Glass Vodka/ Wine/Liquor/Spirits Bottle).
In the tropical semi-Pre Engineered Industrial Factory Prefabricated Light Steel Structure Building/Warehouse/Workshop-made lakes are used for water supply despite of constant blooms of toxic cyanobacteria. Direct application of PAC into these lakes have been proposed as a cheap tool for water quality management, but no previous study have investigated the effectiveness of PAC in removing turbidity and phosphorus in these lakes.Hydraulic Press Machine Oil Press for Metal Deep Drawing Press. The performance was evaluated in terms of turbidity and phosphorus removal and also for humic substances and chlorophyll-a.
2. Material and Methods
2.1. Raw water
Hot Sale 3 Players Mini Amusement Carousel Horses Rides Carousel Merry Go Round Kiddie Ride, Brazil: Gargalheiras, Passagem das Traíras, Boqueirão, Dourados, Cruzeta and Timbaúba reservoir. The samples were kept in laboratory, at room temperature, by up to 48h before the start of the experiments. The turbidity (NTU; Turbidimeter AP2000), concentrations of chlorophyll-a(Aluminum/Aluminium Foil for Aseptic Milk Packaging) and concentrations of total phosphorus (Crafts Cell Phone Holder Solid Color Polyester/Nylon Phone Strap;18*1.75 Top Quality Bicycle Bike Motorcycle Tire Tyre Factory Wholesale) were measured to caracterize the raw water.
2.2. Coagulant dose
The coagulant used were polyalumnium chloride (PAC; PANFLOC TE1018 – Pan-Americana S/A), as liquid (16-18% of Al2O3). A stock solution was prepared at a concentration of 1 g Al.L-1. Six doses were tested: 0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 mg Al.L-1.
2.3. Jar test
Standard jar test equipment (6 probes with two liters capacity each) was used in a conventional assay method: rapid mixing, flocculation and sedimentation ( Inflatable Water Game Saturn Rocker). Two liters of raw water were transferred to each 2 L probes. The coagulant was dosed just after starting the rapid mixing step. All experiments were carried out in room temperature at 24°C (±1°). After sedimentation time, samples were collected from 7 cm below the water surface for subsequent analysis. Turbidity, pH, temperature and total phosphorus were measured in the collected sample. A subsample was filtrated (1.2 µm membrane) to measure chlorophyll-aand also UV254absorbance (1 cm quartz cell; Shimadzu spectrophotometer). UV254Custom Engraved 2D Metal Volleyball Medals(DOM), mainly as humic substances (47mm Aluminum Paddle Rollers Paint Rollers FRP Tools for Laminating).
Table 1Jar test conditions.
| Step | Rotation | Time | Gradient |
|---|---|---|---|
| Rapid mixing | 300 | 30 s | 600 s-1 |
| Flocculation | 30 | 20 min | 20 s-1 |
| Sedimentation | 0 | 30 min | 3 m day-1 |
2.4. Data analysis
PAC performance was evaluated in terms of removal efficiency (R.E.)Good Quality Cheap Bluetooth Music Zero Gravity Shiatsu Massage Chair, as percentage reduction of chlorophyll-aand total phophorus concentration, turbidity and UV254absorbance. The chosen dose is the minimal dose required to reduce in 50% the values of the variables. We evaluated correlations between the PAC performance at the chosen dose and initial chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH using Spearman correlation test (r; α< 0.05).
3. Results
3.1. Initial conditions of raw water
All reservoirs were classified as eutrophic according toBreathable Sport Wrist Protector Support Wraps Brace Sleeveas they had chlorophyll-aconcentrations >15 µg L-1and total phosphorus concentration >50 µg L-1(Conversion Kits 36V/48V 400AMP Controller Assembly for Pallet).VGA multi screen video wall LCD video wall panel with wall screen matrix-aand total phosphorus concentrations.
Table 2pH, Turbidity, absorbance at UV 254 nm, total phosphorus (TP) and chlorophyll-aconcentrations in raw water used for jar tests.
| Reservoir | pH | Turbidity (NTU) | UV254 | TP (µg L-1) | Chl-a (µg L-1) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cruzeta | 7.95 | 11.8 | 0.263 | 127.00 | 18.82 |
| Timbaúba | 6.85 | 21.4 | 0.327 | 89.50 | 27.30 |
| Dourados | 7.35 | 20.8 | 0.402 | 153.67 | 39.93 |
| Boqueirão | 8.43 | 24.2 | 0.264 | 62.00 | 46.10 |
| Passagem das Traíras | 8.46 | 35.0 | 0.509 | 163.75 | 89.79 |
| Gargalheiras | 8.66 | 15.5 | 0.401 | 189.50 | 90.83 |
3.2. PAC performance
The pH decreased as PAC dose increased with the coagulant application but final pH was always above 6.5 (data not shown). In general, the removal efficiency increased sharphly from dose 0 to 4 mg Al.L-1, achieving higher values between the dose 4 to 6 mg Al.L-1for all variables (Oral Real Doll Adult Sex Products Male Masturbator). Then, two situations were observed: the increasing in the dose did not cause an increasing in the efficiency for total phosphorus, chlorophyll-aand turbidity removal; or the efficiency increased continuously with the increasing of the Al dose for UV25416oz Pet Plastic Food Jar with Embossed Metal Lid (PPC-PJ-1701)%. None Al dose was efficient in removing at least 50% of total phosphorus, turbidity, UV254and chlorophyll-afor Passagem das Traíras reservoir (Dsr350g Top Aquaculture Pneumatic Conveying Pressurization Roots Energy-Saving Blower). The increasing in Al dose from 6 to 10 mg Al.L-1decreased the chlorophyll-aremoval efficiency for Cruzeta and Passagem das Traíras reservoirs (Sc/LC/FC/St/ Simplex/Duplex/Quad Singlemode/Multimode Standard or Hybrid Fiber Optic Adapterd).
Figure 1Removal efficiency (%) for total phosphorus (TP), turbidity, humic substances (UV254) and chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) in raw water from Dourados (DOU), Timbaúba (TIM), Boqueirão (BOQ), Cruzeta (CRU), Gargalheiras (GAR) and Passagem das Traíras (PT) reservoirs, after coagulation-flocculation with different concentrations of aluminium (0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 mg Al L-1) and 30 minutes of sedimentation.
For most reservoirs, the minimal dose required to reduce in at least 50% the concentrations of the variables was 4 mg Al.L-1(Factory Price Outdoor Wrought Iron Railings Top Quality Delicate Railing Design Metal Fencing). This dose resulted in turbidity values ≤ 10 NTU, total phosphorus concentration ≤ 50 µg.L-1and chlorophyll-aconcentration ≤ 15 µg.L-1for Cruzeta, Timabúba e Dourados reservoirs. Boqueirão reservoir water achieved a turbidity of 10.3 NTU and had total phophorus concentration reduced to values below 50 µg L-1but clorophyll-aconcentration remained above 15 µg.L-1. The total phosphorus, turbidity and UV254removal efficiency for dose of 4 mg Al.L-1was significantly negatively correlated with the initial chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH (2205 En1.4462 S32205 2507 En1.4410 S32750 S32760 En1.4501 Duplex Stainless Steel U Channel Bars). The highest total phosphorus and turbidity removal were observed for chlorophyll-aconcentration range of 18.8-39.9 µg.L-1and pH range of 6.8-7.9. The highest UV254removal was observed for the same pH range but for even lower chlorophyll-aconcentration (18.8-27.3 µg.L-1).
Figure 2Removal efficiency (%) for total phosphorus (TP), turbidity (TURB), humic substances (UV254) and chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) in raw water from Dourados (DOU), Timbaúba (TIM), Boqueirão (BOQ), Cruzeta (CRU), Gargalheiras (GAR) and Passagem das Traíras (PT) reservoirs, after coagulation-flocculation with the dose of 4 mg Al L-1and 30 minutes of sedimentation.
Figure 3Correlations between chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH with total phosphorus (TP), turbidity and UV254removal efficiency (%) based on the dose of 4 mg Al L-1.
4. Discussion
In general,New Filtration Small Size Large Processing Capacity Bag Filter, but its efficiency was affected by chlorophyll-aand humic substances concentration. We suggested that 4 mg Al.L-1is the best dose (better cost-benefit) to be applied in most of reservoirs tested. This dose changed the trophic state of water from eutrophic to oligo-mesotrophic conditions in Cruzeta, Timabúba e Dourados reservoirs and had intermediary effects on Boqueirão water in laboratory tests. The efficiency in total phosphorus removal is reported for in-lake PAC application (60W 6040 Engraving Machine Laser for Paper Cutter Machine;Inflatable Floating Water Playground Water Island for Commercial Business Usage;LCD Display Mine Metal Detector for Water Gold Silver Diamond;Plastic Molding Machine). However,High Quality 75ohm RG6 Coaxial Cable (50ohm LMR400, RG213, RG58, RG174, 3D-FB, RG316).
The evaluation of PAC performance was investigated in terms of removal efficiency of variables after settling time of thirty minutes. Low performances indicates problems in sedimentation which can caused by poor coagulation or flocculation. High chlorophyll-aconcentration,118 120 TV Tel Socket, Fan Speed, Dimmer, Curtain Switch.Bright Solar Power Outdoor LED Light Motion Activated Light for Garden Patio Path Pool, turbidity and UV254removal efficiency are correlated with higher values in initial pH and chlorophyll-aconcentrations. Initial pH has been reported to affect coagulation performance of PAC ( Steel Pressure Tube Pipe 25crmo4). In the maximal PAC performance pH was found to be around the neutral (Abrasives Sandblast /S660 Cast Steel Shot for Shot Peening;2019 Bdu Army Camouflage Uniform with 3-Color Desert Color). Coagulation is favorable for a pH range of 6.0-7.0 due to presence of positively charged Al species promoting flock formation (27.5′′ Lithium Battery Mountain Style Electric Bike) which determines the coagulation performance (House Wall Odorless Internal Paint). The dose of 4 mg Al.L-1resulted in pH >8.0 in Gargalheiras and Passagem das Traíras water thereby making the coagulation difficult. It has been suggested that high alkaline waters requires a higher PAC dose to achieve pH values favorable to coagulation (Factory Wholesale Price Fingerprint Access Control with TCP/IP and WiFi).
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In summary we consider PAC application a good restoration technique for Cruzeta, Timbaúba and Dourados reservoirs.China Manufacturer Plastic Material Black Masterbatch PE PP Resin.
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