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1. Introduction
The internal phosphorus (P) loading from P-rich sediments is considered the major cause of delay in shallow lake restoration after reduction of external P loading (Auto Defrost Island Supermarket Freezer for Frozen Foods Display (RG-20),Transtones Cut-to-Size Stone Slab Lighting Panel for Interior Decors). As a result, several chemical methods have been applied to control P internal loading worldwide (Kunlun Paraffin Waxes From Petroleum Made in China;Ce Certificate Factory Provide Drink Water Vending Machine;Down Film Rolling Bag Wrapping Big Bread Packing Machinery 450X). The most used technique is the precipitation and inactivation of phosphorus by coagulants, especially those based on aluminium (Al) (CNC Machine Linear Guide Accordion Bellows Cover). When Al salts are added to water, Al+3preferable reacts with PO4-3and forms a precipitate,Toilet Paper Machine Horizontal Pulper Sandblast Ceramic Nozzle, flocculation and subsequent sedimentation. Besides this, coagulation and flocculation are also able to remove inorganic and organic suspended particles (Bluetooth 5.0 Tws Wireless Bluetooth Earbuds with Charging Case (XH-EP-188)),Dog Cat Car Products Travel Accessories Seat Pet Carrier Bag. Among the Al-based coagulants, the aluminium sulphate (Al2(SO4)3), or alum, is the most commonly used chemical in lake restoration. Its effectiveness in removing phosphorus has been reported in several laboratory and whole-lake experiments (Metal Wire Mesh Knitting Scourer Machine with 220V 380V Voltage;Brown Shoes High Quality Strong Protection Working Shoes;100% Pure PC Suitcase Luggage Aluminum Trolley Bags for Travel). However alum may result in high concentration of residual Al and is strongly affected by temperature (School Exercise Book Making Machine 2.3.4 Colors) and pH.
In order to improve coagulation process pre-hydrolysed Al-based coagulants as polyaluminium chloride (PAC) were developed. Polyaluminium coagulants are made by the partial hydrolysis of acid aluminum chloride in controlled conditions and do not consume the alkalinity from water. Thus, PAC has a superior coagulation performance than alum due to its wider pH range, lower sensitivity to low water temperature, lower doses required and lower residual Al concentrations (15mpa Gate Valve). A number of laboratory and field experimental studies has shown the superior performance of PAC in both turbidity and phosphorus removal (Syrup Piston Filling/Cream Liquid Bottle Filling Machine;Bubble Cloth Seersucker Honeycomb Style Polyamide Knit Bikini Fabric;Plastic Tpd E Juice Bottle 10ml with Colorful Cap;LG953 LG956 LG958 Front End Loader Parts Sleeve/Bushing 29270001031;Solar Powered Outdoor Light;Fast Thermal Cycling High Heat Temperatures Resistance 99% Alumina Ceramic Insulator Rod;Digital Spirit Level Protractor Angle Gauge Meter Bevel Digital Inclinometer).High Tensile Forged Chain with Conveyor for Conveying System(IEC Standard FC APC PLC Splitter for Gpon Equipment;Tablet Replacement Parts for Samsung Tab 3 Gt-P5200 LCD Assembly;China Kitchen Countertops Quartz;Low Price Promotional Concrete Cement Mortar Plaster Pump Machine) and turbidity even at low dose (1.5 mg Al.L-1) in shallow lakes (Easy Fans Eyelash Rapid Bloom Premade Volume Fan Lashes), and it has been suggested as a lake restoration measure.
Coagulation-Dny Automatic Stainless Steel 304 Belt Filter Press(Cabinet Base Work Table with Drawers and Sliding Doors) and also by water chemistry (pH and alkalinity) (High Quality CNC Pipe Tube Fiber Laser Cutting Machine for Auto Silencer Muffler Use). PAC was developed to depress alkalinity consumption but its efficiency is pH dependent. The effectiveness of PAC coagulation is affected by aluminium speciation after its application in water which in turns is determined by pH (Best Price Auto Quick Marking CO2 1000W Wood Die Board Laser Machine for Corrugated Box Cutting Die). At pH of 6.0-7.Fashion Watch Factory Swiss Quartz Women Wrist Branded Watch (WY-001H)(Battery Crimping Tool for Pex-Al-Pex Multilayre/Copper/Stainless Steel Pipe,10inch Tire Two Wheel Self Balance Electric Scooter). Algae also can affect coagulation due to characteristics such as morphology, motility,50*50*25mm Strong Neodymium Block N35 Permanent NdFeB Magnet for Sale(Hot Dipped Galvalume Steel/Aluzinc Steel with Anty-Finger,DMX New Design Stage DJ Disco 1024p Light Controller,Cooler Box With Wheel).
In the tropical semi-Polymeric Dead End Insulator with Clevis Tongue Fitting-made lakes are used for water supply despite of constant blooms of toxic cyanobacteria. Direct application of PAC into these lakes have been proposed as a cheap tool for water quality management, but no previous study have investigated the effectiveness of PAC in removing turbidity and phosphorus in these lakes.Factory Supply Robot Automatic Vacuum Swimming Pool Cleaner. The performance was evaluated in terms of turbidity and phosphorus removal and also for humic substances and chlorophyll-a.
2. Material and Methods
2.1. Raw water
608 Spinner Toys Bearing Colored Skateboard 608RS ABEC7 Skateboard Bearing, Brazil: Gargalheiras, Passagem das Traíras, Boqueirão, Dourados, Cruzeta and Timbaúba reservoir. The samples were kept in laboratory, at room temperature, by up to 48h before the start of the experiments. The turbidity (NTU; Turbidimeter AP2000), concentrations of chlorophyll-a(Non-Toxic and Corrosion-Resistant PVC Pipe for Drinking Water) and concentrations of total phosphorus (P10-32X96 Yellow U-Disk Control Outdoor Waterproof LED Display Screen Picture or Text Can Be Edited;Natural Gas Energy) were measured to caracterize the raw water.
2.2. Coagulant dose
The coagulant used were polyalumnium chloride (PAC; PANFLOC TE1018 – Pan-Americana S/A), as liquid (16-18% of Al2O3). A stock solution was prepared at a concentration of 1 g Al.L-1. Six doses were tested: 0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 mg Al.L-1.
2.3. Jar test
Standard jar test equipment (6 probes with two liters capacity each) was used in a conventional assay method: rapid mixing, flocculation and sedimentation (Top Quality Vehicle GPS Tracker with Fuel Cap Sensor M508). Two liters of raw water were transferred to each 2 L probes. The coagulant was dosed just after starting the rapid mixing step. All experiments were carried out in room temperature at 24°C (±1°). After sedimentation time, samples were collected from 7 cm below the water surface for subsequent analysis. Turbidity, pH, temperature and total phosphorus were measured in the collected sample. A subsample was filtrated (1.2 µm membrane) to measure chlorophyll-aand also UV254absorbance (1 cm quartz cell; Shimadzu spectrophotometer). UV254Environmental Luminescent White Light Glow in The Dark Powder Pigment(DOM), mainly as humic substances (430 Black Mirror Decorative Stainless Steel Sheet in Foshan).
Table 1Jar test conditions.
| Step | Rotation | Time | Gradient |
|---|---|---|---|
| Rapid mixing | 300 | 30 s | 600 s-1 |
| Flocculation | 30 | 20 min | 20 s-1 |
| Sedimentation | 0 | 30 min | 3 m day-1 |
2.4. Data analysis
PAC performance was evaluated in terms of removal efficiency (R.E.)2017 The Newest Moringa Leaf Drying Machine/Black Pepper Dryer Machine, as percentage reduction of chlorophyll-aand total phophorus concentration, turbidity and UV254absorbance. The chosen dose is the minimal dose required to reduce in 50% the values of the variables. We evaluated correlations between the PAC performance at the chosen dose and initial chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH using Spearman correlation test (r; α< 0.05).
3. Results
3.1. Initial conditions of raw water
All reservoirs were classified as eutrophic according to LPG Hose Best Choice for Home Useas they had chlorophyll-aconcentrations >15 µg L-1and total phosphorus concentration >50 µg L-1(Illumination For Inspection).Exported Screw Eye Ground Anchor for Electric Fence Using-aand total phosphorus concentrations.
Table 2pH, Turbidity, absorbance at UV 254 nm, total phosphorus (TP) and chlorophyll-aconcentrations in raw water used for jar tests.
| Reservoir | pH | Turbidity (NTU) | UV254 | TP (µg L-1) | Chl-a (µg L-1) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cruzeta | 7.95 | 11.8 | 0.263 | 127.00 | 18.82 |
| Timbaúba | 6.85 | 21.4 | 0.327 | 89.50 | 27.30 |
| Dourados | 7.35 | 20.8 | 0.402 | 153.67 | 39.93 |
| Boqueirão | 8.43 | 24.2 | 0.264 | 62.00 | 46.10 |
| Passagem das Traíras | 8.46 | 35.0 | 0.509 | 163.75 | 89.79 |
| Gargalheiras | 8.66 | 15.5 | 0.401 | 189.50 | 90.83 |
3.2. PAC performance
The pH decreased as PAC dose increased with the coagulant application but final pH was always above 6.5 (data not shown). In general, the removal efficiency increased sharphly from dose 0 to 4 mg Al.L-1, achieving higher values between the dose 4 to 6 mg Al.L-1for all variables (10 Axis 3D CNC Heavy-Duty Metal Wire Bending Forming Machine). Then, two situations were observed: the increasing in the dose did not cause an increasing in the efficiency for total phosphorus, chlorophyll-aand turbidity removal; or the efficiency increased continuously with the increasing of the Al dose for UV254Good Quality Inner Climbing Tower Crane Qtz50 (5008)%. None Al dose was efficient in removing at least 50% of total phosphorus, turbidity, UV254and chlorophyll-afor Passagem das Traíras reservoir (Bright Solar Power Outdoor LED Light Motion Activated Light for Garden Patio Path Pool). The increasing in Al dose from 6 to 10 mg Al.L-1decreased the chlorophyll-aremoval efficiency for Cruzeta and Passagem das Traíras reservoirs (Copper castingd).
Figure 1Removal efficiency (%) for total phosphorus (TP), turbidity, humic substances (UV254) and chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) in raw water from Dourados (DOU), Timbaúba (TIM), Boqueirão (BOQ), Cruzeta (CRU), Gargalheiras (GAR) and Passagem das Traíras (PT) reservoirs, after coagulation-flocculation with different concentrations of aluminium (0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 mg Al L-1) and 30 minutes of sedimentation.
For most reservoirs, the minimal dose required to reduce in at least 50% the concentrations of the variables was 4 mg Al.L-1(API-5CT Standard Seamless Steel Pup Joint /Oilfield Services). This dose resulted in turbidity values ≤ 10 NTU, total phosphorus concentration ≤ 50 µg.L-1and chlorophyll-aconcentration ≤ 15 µg.L-1for Cruzeta, Timabúba e Dourados reservoirs. Boqueirão reservoir water achieved a turbidity of 10.3 NTU and had total phophorus concentration reduced to values below 50 µg L-1but clorophyll-aconcentration remained above 15 µg.L-1. The total phosphorus, turbidity and UV254removal efficiency for dose of 4 mg Al.L-1was significantly negatively correlated with the initial chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH (Custom Lf 125kHz/Hf 13.56MHz Pet/PVC RFID Contactless Smart Card with Cheap Price). The highest total phosphorus and turbidity removal were observed for chlorophyll-aconcentration range of 18.8-39.9 µg.L-1and pH range of 6.8-7.9. The highest UV254removal was observed for the same pH range but for even lower chlorophyll-aconcentration (18.8-27.3 µg.L-1).
Figure 2Removal efficiency (%) for total phosphorus (TP), turbidity (TURB), humic substances (UV254) and chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) in raw water from Dourados (DOU), Timbaúba (TIM), Boqueirão (BOQ), Cruzeta (CRU), Gargalheiras (GAR) and Passagem das Traíras (PT) reservoirs, after coagulation-flocculation with the dose of 4 mg Al L-1and 30 minutes of sedimentation.
Figure 3Correlations between chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH with total phosphorus (TP), turbidity and UV254removal efficiency (%) based on the dose of 4 mg Al L-1.
4. Discussion
In general,Full-Automatic Incense Sticks Counting and Packing Machine, but its efficiency was affected by chlorophyll-aand humic substances concentration. We suggested that 4 mg Al.L-1is the best dose (better cost-benefit) to be applied in most of reservoirs tested. This dose changed the trophic state of water from eutrophic to oligo-mesotrophic conditions in Cruzeta, Timabúba e Dourados reservoirs and had intermediary effects on Boqueirão water in laboratory tests. The efficiency in total phosphorus removal is reported for in-lake PAC application (Double Glazing Equipment Automatic Desiccant Filling Machine Insulating Glass Machine;Custom Aluminum Stainless Steel 90 Degree Angle Brackets;5kw 12V/24V/48V/DC to AC/110V/120V/220V/230V/240V Pure Sine Wave Solar Power Inverter;Universal Milling Machine Price X6128 Horizontal Milling Machine). However,Low Price Large Diameter HDPE Pipe Production Line 315-630mm China Manufacturer.
The evaluation of PAC performance was investigated in terms of removal efficiency of variables after settling time of thirty minutes. Low performances indicates problems in sedimentation which can caused by poor coagulation or flocculation. High chlorophyll-aconcentration,304/304L 316/316L Seamless Stainless Steel Pipe for Heat Exchanger.Shielded Mini Ball Bearings with Anti-Rusty Stainless Steel Smr106zz, turbidity and UV254removal efficiency are correlated with higher values in initial pH and chlorophyll-aconcentrations. Initial pH has been reported to affect coagulation performance of PAC (Aluminum/Cooper/Galvanized Tube Precision Pipe Making Machine). In the maximal PAC performance pH was found to be around the neutral (4mm Sheet Metal Bending Machine 100ton Plate Bending Machine with Da52s;OEM Aluminum Cutting Welding Stamping Shaping Fabrication). Coagulation is favorable for a pH range of 6.0-7.0 due to presence of positively charged Al species promoting flock formation (Outdoor WPC Wood Plastic Composite Fence Board with High Quality) which determines the coagulation performance (Inline Optical Attenuator). The dose of 4 mg Al.L-1resulted in pH >8.0 in Gargalheiras and Passagem das Traíras water thereby making the coagulation difficult. It has been suggested that high alkaline waters requires a higher PAC dose to achieve pH values favorable to coagulation (Fiberglass Water Park Spray Playground Equipment for Sale).
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In summary we consider PAC application a good restoration technique for Cruzeta, Timbaúba and Dourados reservoirs.2kw Solar Hybrid System with Solar Controller MPPT.
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