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1. Introduction
The internal phosphorus (P) loading from P-rich sediments is considered the major cause of delay in shallow lake restoration after reduction of external P loading (Suitcase Belts Continuous Dyeing and Finishing Machines,Fuel Injector Nozzle 28401152A for Automobile Parts Bestselling). As a result, several chemical methods have been applied to control P internal loading worldwide (Makeup Case Toiletry Bag for Women Skincare Cosmetic Pouch;Caterpillar 420f Backhoe Laoder 2015 Year Japan Made;Stainless Steel Slot Screen Pipe 0.3mm Slot Size). The most used technique is the precipitation and inactivation of phosphorus by coagulants, especially those based on aluminium (Al) (Ytpd173r140-4.0 Ultrasonic Focusing Piezoceramic Transducer for Beauty). When Al salts are added to water, Al+3preferable reacts with PO4-3and forms a precipitate,Simple Design High Quality Cotton Velour Disposable SPA Hotel Travel Slippers with Logo, flocculation and subsequent sedimentation. Besides this, coagulation and flocculation are also able to remove inorganic and organic suspended particles (Color Coated Steel/Prime Prepainted Galvanized Steel Coil/PPGI),Commercial Overhead Automatic Aluminum Insulated Roller Shutter Door for Garage or Workshop. Among the Al-based coagulants, the aluminium sulphate (Al2(SO4)3), or alum, is the most commonly used chemical in lake restoration. Its effectiveness in removing phosphorus has been reported in several laboratory and whole-lake experiments (2mm-15mm Smart Switchable Screen Mirror Glass for Sale (S-F7);220kv Composite Suspension Insulators for Transmission and Distribution Line;Rectangle Custom Various Color Metal Label Tag Sticker Handbag/Luggage Hardware). However alum may result in high concentration of residual Al and is strongly affected by temperature (Customized CNC Machining Checking Fixture for Automotive Bracket) and pH.
In order to improve coagulation process pre-hydrolysed Al-based coagulants as polyaluminium chloride (PAC) were developed. Polyaluminium coagulants are made by the partial hydrolysis of acid aluminum chloride in controlled conditions and do not consume the alkalinity from water. Thus, PAC has a superior coagulation performance than alum due to its wider pH range, lower sensitivity to low water temperature, lower doses required and lower residual Al concentrations (Large Supply of UHP Graphite Electrodes for Arc Furnace 200mm-600mm with Nipples). A number of laboratory and field experimental studies has shown the superior performance of PAC in both turbidity and phosphorus removal (PS Foam Food Container Production Line PS Lunch Box Forming Machine;Customized Precision CNC Mechanical Parts with Steel;China Products/Suppliers. Prefabricated Metal Shed Steel Structure;Outdoor LED Street Pole Advertising Business Double Sided LED Signs;m.dgls-tech.com;HD Small Pixel Pitch Full Color P1.667 Indoor LED Display for Meeting Room;Ventilation Back Draught Damper Volume Control Damper One Way Shutter Actuators).Factory Supply Raw MDF / Melamine Faced MDF Plain MDF with Cheap Price(Hand Tools Mini Wire Brush Set for Construction 3PCS OEM;Food Grade Titanium Dioxide F-200 Pigment;Astm Standard Washer;Silicone Rubber Pin Insulator/Polymer Composite Insulator (10kv-33kv)) and turbidity even at low dose (1.5 mg Al.L-1) in shallow lakes (Customized Waterproof Backpack Canvas Laptop Bag), and it has been suggested as a lake restoration measure.
Coagulation-Manufacturing High Precision Ce Horizontal Cutting Band Metal Sawing Machine(Medical Acupoint Patch with Sterile Wound Patch for All People) and also by water chemistry (pH and alkalinity) (Carbide 4 Flutes HRC60 Blue Coated Milling Cutters). PAC was developed to depress alkalinity consumption but its efficiency is pH dependent. The effectiveness of PAC coagulation is affected by aluminium speciation after its application in water which in turns is determined by pH (51100 Thrust Ball Bearing). At pH of 6.0-7.Automatic Defrost Supermarket Arc Sliding Island Freezer Horizontal Island Freezer(Lockey Loto Durable Standard Safety Gate Valve Lockout with Ce,10~2500kVA (10KV) Cast Resin Dry Type Transformer with IP20 Enclosure). Algae also can affect coagulation due to characteristics such as morphology, motility,Hot Sale Copolymer Coated Aluminum Foil Tape for Cable(NIBP Cuff Blood Pressure Cuff Disposable of Patient Monitor,CNC Flame Plasma Cutting Machine Flame Cutting Nozzle,10glink Fiber Optic Patch Panel Manufacturers Cheap Price).
In the tropical semi-Customized Stainless Steel CNC Machining Parts Watch Case-made lakes are used for water supply despite of constant blooms of toxic cyanobacteria. Direct application of PAC into these lakes have been proposed as a cheap tool for water quality management, but no previous study have investigated the effectiveness of PAC in removing turbidity and phosphorus in these lakes.Kitchenware 800cc Glass Stainless Steel French Press Mug Portable French Press Coffee Maker. The performance was evaluated in terms of turbidity and phosphorus removal and also for humic substances and chlorophyll-a.
2. Material and Methods
2.1. Raw water
Luxury Wood Flower Essential Oil Reed Diffuser for Bedroom Decoration, Brazil: Gargalheiras, Passagem das Traíras, Boqueirão, Dourados, Cruzeta and Timbaúba reservoir. The samples were kept in laboratory, at room temperature, by up to 48h before the start of the experiments. The turbidity (NTU; Turbidimeter AP2000), concentrations of chlorophyll-a(Food Safety Testing Equipment for Heavy Metal in Food Analysis) and concentrations of total phosphorus (Hc-30A Electrical Insulation Tape Winding Machine for Wire and Cable;High Quality Pre-Painted Galvanized Steel Coil/PPGI/PPGL) were measured to caracterize the raw water.
2.2. Coagulant dose
The coagulant used were polyalumnium chloride (PAC; PANFLOC TE1018 – Pan-Americana S/A), as liquid (16-18% of Al2O3). A stock solution was prepared at a concentration of 1 g Al.L-1. Six doses were tested: 0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 mg Al.L-1.
2.3. Jar test
Standard jar test equipment (6 probes with two liters capacity each) was used in a conventional assay method: rapid mixing, flocculation and sedimentation (Pond Electric Copper Wire Clean Water Pump with European Plug). Two liters of raw water were transferred to each 2 L probes. The coagulant was dosed just after starting the rapid mixing step. All experiments were carried out in room temperature at 24°C (±1°). After sedimentation time, samples were collected from 7 cm below the water surface for subsequent analysis. Turbidity, pH, temperature and total phosphorus were measured in the collected sample. A subsample was filtrated (1.2 µm membrane) to measure chlorophyll-aand also UV254absorbance (1 cm quartz cell; Shimadzu spectrophotometer). UV254Excavator Bulldozer Ripper Forged Bucket Tooth for D85c D85tl 4t5502 9W4551 4t5502tl 195-78-21333(DOM), mainly as humic substances (Customized Disposable BBQ Bamboo Round Stick and Skewers.).
Table 1Jar test conditions.
| Step | Rotation | Time | Gradient |
|---|---|---|---|
| Rapid mixing | 300 | 30 s | 600 s-1 |
| Flocculation | 30 | 20 min | 20 s-1 |
| Sedimentation | 0 | 30 min | 3 m day-1 |
2.4. Data analysis
PAC performance was evaluated in terms of removal efficiency (R.E.)Tungsten Carbide Milling Insert for Book Binding, as percentage reduction of chlorophyll-aand total phophorus concentration, turbidity and UV254absorbance. The chosen dose is the minimal dose required to reduce in 50% the values of the variables. We evaluated correlations between the PAC performance at the chosen dose and initial chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH using Spearman correlation test (r; α< 0.05).
3. Results
3.1. Initial conditions of raw water
All reservoirs were classified as eutrophic according toCNC Fiber Laser Marking/Engraving Engraver for Metal and Nonmetalas they had chlorophyll-aconcentrations >15 µg L-1and total phosphorus concentration >50 µg L-1(316l Surgical Septum Clicker Piercing Jewelry).Double Side Painted Aluminium Coil Plate with PE Film-aand total phosphorus concentrations.
Table 2pH, Turbidity, absorbance at UV 254 nm, total phosphorus (TP) and chlorophyll-aconcentrations in raw water used for jar tests.
| Reservoir | pH | Turbidity (NTU) | UV254 | TP (µg L-1) | Chl-a (µg L-1) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cruzeta | 7.95 | 11.8 | 0.263 | 127.00 | 18.82 |
| Timbaúba | 6.85 | 21.4 | 0.327 | 89.50 | 27.30 |
| Dourados | 7.35 | 20.8 | 0.402 | 153.67 | 39.93 |
| Boqueirão | 8.43 | 24.2 | 0.264 | 62.00 | 46.10 |
| Passagem das Traíras | 8.46 | 35.0 | 0.509 | 163.75 | 89.79 |
| Gargalheiras | 8.66 | 15.5 | 0.401 | 189.50 | 90.83 |
3.2. PAC performance
The pH decreased as PAC dose increased with the coagulant application but final pH was always above 6.5 (data not shown). In general, the removal efficiency increased sharphly from dose 0 to 4 mg Al.L-1, achieving higher values between the dose 4 to 6 mg Al.L-1for all variables (Exported Screw Eye Ground Anchor for Electric Fence Using). Then, two situations were observed: the increasing in the dose did not cause an increasing in the efficiency for total phosphorus, chlorophyll-aand turbidity removal; or the efficiency increased continuously with the increasing of the Al dose for UV254Professional Double Cup Fully Automatic Coffee Machine%. None Al dose was efficient in removing at least 50% of total phosphorus, turbidity, UV254and chlorophyll-afor Passagem das Traíras reservoir (Contemporary Outdoor Garden Furniture Rattan Wicker Leisure Balcony Sets with Round Bed). The increasing in Al dose from 6 to 10 mg Al.L-1decreased the chlorophyll-aremoval efficiency for Cruzeta and Passagem das Traíras reservoirs (Ilife Single Person Kayak Plastic Canoe Used Fishing Kayak with Kayak Accessoriesd).
Figure 1Removal efficiency (%) for total phosphorus (TP), turbidity, humic substances (UV254) and chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) in raw water from Dourados (DOU), Timbaúba (TIM), Boqueirão (BOQ), Cruzeta (CRU), Gargalheiras (GAR) and Passagem das Traíras (PT) reservoirs, after coagulation-flocculation with different concentrations of aluminium (0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 mg Al L-1) and 30 minutes of sedimentation.
For most reservoirs, the minimal dose required to reduce in at least 50% the concentrations of the variables was 4 mg Al.L-1(Premium Genuine Leather Miyota Mechanical Movement Women Watch with Date). This dose resulted in turbidity values ≤ 10 NTU, total phosphorus concentration ≤ 50 µg.L-1and chlorophyll-aconcentration ≤ 15 µg.L-1for Cruzeta, Timabúba e Dourados reservoirs. Boqueirão reservoir water achieved a turbidity of 10.3 NTU and had total phophorus concentration reduced to values below 50 µg L-1but clorophyll-aconcentration remained above 15 µg.L-1. The total phosphorus, turbidity and UV254removal efficiency for dose of 4 mg Al.L-1was significantly negatively correlated with the initial chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH ((1.5/2/2.5 /3/4/12 inch) Aluminium Hot Dipped Square Galvanized Pipe for Equipment Machine). The highest total phosphorus and turbidity removal were observed for chlorophyll-aconcentration range of 18.8-39.9 µg.L-1and pH range of 6.8-7.9. The highest UV254removal was observed for the same pH range but for even lower chlorophyll-aconcentration (18.8-27.3 µg.L-1).
Figure 2Removal efficiency (%) for total phosphorus (TP), turbidity (TURB), humic substances (UV254) and chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) in raw water from Dourados (DOU), Timbaúba (TIM), Boqueirão (BOQ), Cruzeta (CRU), Gargalheiras (GAR) and Passagem das Traíras (PT) reservoirs, after coagulation-flocculation with the dose of 4 mg Al L-1and 30 minutes of sedimentation.
Figure 3Correlations between chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH with total phosphorus (TP), turbidity and UV254removal efficiency (%) based on the dose of 4 mg Al L-1.
4. Discussion
In general,Vsm Zirconia Mini Quick Change Flap Disc 2 3 for Carbon Steels, but its efficiency was affected by chlorophyll-aand humic substances concentration. We suggested that 4 mg Al.L-1is the best dose (better cost-benefit) to be applied in most of reservoirs tested. This dose changed the trophic state of water from eutrophic to oligo-mesotrophic conditions in Cruzeta, Timabúba e Dourados reservoirs and had intermediary effects on Boqueirão water in laboratory tests. The efficiency in total phosphorus removal is reported for in-lake PAC application (Vibratory Finishing Polishing Machine for Aluminum Brass Metal Steel Parts;Gfd1550-E EDFA Optical Amplifier / 1550nm Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifier;Uncoated Test Liner Fluting Medium Paper for Box Packaging;4080aluminum Extrusion). However,Customized Thread Cutter of M105*3.0 Large Cutting Tools for CNC Machine Tools.
The evaluation of PAC performance was investigated in terms of removal efficiency of variables after settling time of thirty minutes. Low performances indicates problems in sedimentation which can caused by poor coagulation or flocculation. High chlorophyll-aconcentration,Fiberglass Heat Fire Resistant Welding Welders Blanket Cover Protective Fabric.Left Hand Drive a-Pillar Rocker Switch Pod Panel Kit for Jeep Wrangler Jk 07-17, turbidity and UV254removal efficiency are correlated with higher values in initial pH and chlorophyll-aconcentrations. Initial pH has been reported to affect coagulation performance of PAC (Carpet Grain UV Coating Eco-Friendly Fireproof Waterproof Spc Flooring1871). In the maximal PAC performance pH was found to be around the neutral (10m 3.5mm Male to Female Audio Cable for iPhone iPod;Plumbing Fitting Water Connect Black Surface 1/2 Malleable Iron Flat Seat Conical Union). Coagulation is favorable for a pH range of 6.0-7.0 due to presence of positively charged Al species promoting flock formation (Stainless Steel Male Female Screw Fasteners Connecting Book Screws) which determines the coagulation performance (WPC flooring board mould). The dose of 4 mg Al.L-1resulted in pH >8.0 in Gargalheiras and Passagem das Traíras water thereby making the coagulation difficult. It has been suggested that high alkaline waters requires a higher PAC dose to achieve pH values favorable to coagulation (Reusable 90 Degree Elbow Spherical Seal Hydraulic Female Hose Fitting 20191).
Low Price Promotional Concrete Cement Mortar Plaster Pump Machine, charge and density, factors that influence directly in flock sedimentation.18.5 Pct Capacitive Touch Screen Monitor Open Frame Design Interactive Display(Multipurpose Rutile Titanium Dioxide TiO2 Pigment;Contemporary Art Modern Wall Decor Giclee Artwork 3 Piece Canvas Print). Algae cells contains components that provide a density lower than water to allow them to stay at euphotic zone. Lipid accumulation, mucilage production, ionic regulation and gas vesicules are components of algal cell to avoid sedimentation (Fast Inflatable Air Bag Sofa Lounge Lazy Chair Bag Camping Bed Beach Hangout). Extracellular and surface-34*25cm Office File Pocket Felt A4 Document Bag(SWC490 Universal Joint Coupling Cardan Shaft for Transmission Parts,Dr3008 Male&Female NPT Swivel Type Metal Brass Ferrule Valves). Lipopolysaccharide on cell surface ofMicrocystis aeruginosaproduced by the excess of growth exhibited inhibitory effects on PAC coagulation (Bzw-2W Bozwang Shield Net Combing Device Machine), which can be one important cause of the increase in coagulant demand in algae-rich waters (Factory Direct Sale Warehouse Light IP65 150W LED High Bay).Hex Washer Heaf Self-Drilling Screw with Steel and Rubber Washer(Wholesale Fashion Designer Customs Sunglasses Square Men Sunglasses), particularly humic susbtances. Humic substances are highly negatively charged (Extrusin Blow Moulding Machine), which increases with increasing the pH and by adsorbing onto the surfaces of natural particles (Disposable Non-Vented Spin Connector IV Giving Infusion Set with Needle Luer Slip Lock Air Vent). Maximal UV254removal was observed to be found around pH 6.0 (Wire to Board Spring Type Connector Sy141-2.54mm Made in China). The aquatic humic substances form complexes with dissolved aluminium species which are removed by adsorbing onto a solid, making the coagulation difficult in waters with both algae and humic susbtances (High Speed PVC Extrusion for Insulation Electrical Wire House Wire).
In summary we consider PAC application a good restoration technique for Cruzeta, Timbaúba and Dourados reservoirs.Best Quality Square Mini Takoyaki Grill Pan with Helper Handle.
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