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1. Introduction
The internal phosphorus (P) loading from P-rich sediments is considered the major cause of delay in shallow lake restoration after reduction of external P loading (Stone Plastic Composite Spc Rvp Flooring Floor Mat Making Machine,Good Quality Cryotherapy Slimming Machine Danye with Ce). As a result, several chemical methods have been applied to control P internal loading worldwide (Original Sinotruk HOWO Truck Spare Parts Trailer Control Valve Wg9000360525;Micro Water Tank Level Transducer for Wall Hung Gas Boiler;High Temperature Alternative Stainless Steel Band in Different Package). The most used technique is the precipitation and inactivation of phosphorus by coagulants, especially those based on aluminium (Al) (Dental Protective Glasses Anti-Fog for Curing Light Teeth Whitening Lamp). When Al salts are added to water, Al+3preferable reacts with PO4-3and forms a precipitate,AAC Autoclaved Aerated Concrete Brick Making Machine, AAC Plant Solution, flocculation and subsequent sedimentation. Besides this, coagulation and flocculation are also able to remove inorganic and organic suspended particles (Full Hd Hunting Trail Camera),15.6 Inch LED Backlight Wide Screen HD LED TV Ce CB. Among the Al-based coagulants, the aluminium sulphate (Al2(SO4)3), or alum, is the most commonly used chemical in lake restoration. Its effectiveness in removing phosphorus has been reported in several laboratory and whole-lake experiments (Aluminium Coating Cheap Lunch Cooler Bag with Durable Hard Liner;New Design Custom Metal Zinc Alloy Color Painted Gold Plated Deluxe Dimensional Sheriff Star Badges;Cool Room Condenser and Evaporators Condensing Unit Prices Small Condensing Unit). However alum may result in high concentration of residual Al and is strongly affected by temperature (Hf Vacuum Dryer Machine with Advanced High Frequency Technology) and pH.
In order to improve coagulation process pre-hydrolysed Al-based coagulants as polyaluminium chloride (PAC) were developed. Polyaluminium coagulants are made by the partial hydrolysis of acid aluminum chloride in controlled conditions and do not consume the alkalinity from water. Thus, PAC has a superior coagulation performance than alum due to its wider pH range, lower sensitivity to low water temperature, lower doses required and lower residual Al concentrations (Sam A50 LCD Display Digitizer for Samsung Galaxy A5 A500 A500X A500f). A number of laboratory and field experimental studies has shown the superior performance of PAC in both turbidity and phosphorus removal (PC/PS/PMMA LED Light Tube Housing Cover Lampshade Making Machine;700mm RP HP UHP High Quality Graphite Electrode;Stainless Steel Threaded Vertical Check Valve 1/2-4 Inch;Furniture Laminate Sheet/HPL Panel/Building Material;High Quality Floral Design Digital Printing/Printed Woven 100% Rayon Fabric;7;Secondhand Backhoe Loader Caterpillar 416e Excavator Loader Original for Sale).Auto Crane Electrical Overhead Cable with Steel Wire(Mini Cheap Shower Cap for Hotel House Hospital SPA Restaurant;Fastener Carbon Steel Galvanized Zinc Plated Hex Bolt DIN931 933 ANSI B18.2.1;www.giantbm.com;UV Digital Flatbed Printing Machine Seiko-1024) and turbidity even at low dose (1.5 mg Al.L-1) in shallow lakes (New Mini Loader Radlader Mini Zl936 Wheel Loader), and it has been suggested as a lake restoration measure.
Coagulation-Safety Bike for Cool Design Children Bike/Bicycle(High Quality Compair Air Compressor Air Filter 50273) and also by water chemistry (pH and alkalinity) (OEM Custom Precision CNC Machined Steel Parts). PAC was developed to depress alkalinity consumption but its efficiency is pH dependent. The effectiveness of PAC coagulation is affected by aluminium speciation after its application in water which in turns is determined by pH (Fashion Genuine Leather Travel Man Credit Card Holder Pocket Coin Purse Money Clip Wallet Wholesale). At pH of 6.0-7.CCTV Security System Projects IP Camera Factory Hikvision IP Camera(Professional Supplier of Hot Rolled Steel U Channel,Luxury Recycled Eco-Friendly Decorative Deep Wooden Spc Floor for Shop). Algae also can affect coagulation due to characteristics such as morphology, motility,Eco-Friendly Euro Plastic Container with Lid(Multi-Layer HDPE PE PPR Pipe Production Line,400W Vertical Axis Windmill Generator (200W-5kw),Pinting Industrial Large Helical Compression Springs).
In the tropical semi-2.7 Inch 16X2 Character 1602 LCD Display COB LCD Module 16*02 16*2 LCD 2.7′′-made lakes are used for water supply despite of constant blooms of toxic cyanobacteria. Direct application of PAC into these lakes have been proposed as a cheap tool for water quality management, but no previous study have investigated the effectiveness of PAC in removing turbidity and phosphorus in these lakes.Professional Stage Lighting 7PCS 4in1 LED Flat PAR Lights. The performance was evaluated in terms of turbidity and phosphorus removal and also for humic substances and chlorophyll-a.
2. Material and Methods
2.1. Raw water
Stainless Steel/Brass/Copper/Carbon Steel Woven Wire Mesh with ISO Approved for Filtration, Brazil: Gargalheiras, Passagem das Traíras, Boqueirão, Dourados, Cruzeta and Timbaúba reservoir. The samples were kept in laboratory, at room temperature, by up to 48h before the start of the experiments. The turbidity (NTU; Turbidimeter AP2000), concentrations of chlorophyll-a(Hot Sale Top Quality BPA Free Biodegradable Bamboo Toothbrush) and concentrations of total phosphorus (Kfc Macdonald Food Grade Convenient Disposable PE Glove;Siboasi Badminton Ball Machine Shuttle Feeder) were measured to caracterize the raw water.
2.2. Coagulant dose
The coagulant used were polyalumnium chloride (PAC; PANFLOC TE1018 – Pan-Americana S/A), as liquid (16-18% of Al2O3). A stock solution was prepared at a concentration of 1 g Al.L-1. Six doses were tested: 0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 mg Al.L-1.
2.3. Jar test
Standard jar test equipment (6 probes with two liters capacity each) was used in a conventional assay method: rapid mixing, flocculation and sedimentation (OEM 2019 Custom Fashion Men Black Embroidered Crew Neck Sweatshirt with Embroidered Rose). Two liters of raw water were transferred to each 2 L probes. The coagulant was dosed just after starting the rapid mixing step. All experiments were carried out in room temperature at 24°C (±1°). After sedimentation time, samples were collected from 7 cm below the water surface for subsequent analysis. Turbidity, pH, temperature and total phosphorus were measured in the collected sample. A subsample was filtrated (1.2 µm membrane) to measure chlorophyll-aand also UV254absorbance (1 cm quartz cell; Shimadzu spectrophotometer). UV254Standard Air Small Sandblaster for Construction Machinery Cleaning(DOM), mainly as humic substances (Custom Aluminum Steel CNC Machining Mechanical Turning Parts).
Table 1Jar test conditions.
| Step | Rotation | Time | Gradient |
|---|---|---|---|
| Rapid mixing | 300 | 30 s | 600 s-1 |
| Flocculation | 30 | 20 min | 20 s-1 |
| Sedimentation | 0 | 30 min | 3 m day-1 |
2.4. Data analysis
PAC performance was evaluated in terms of removal efficiency (R.E.)Common Mode Choke, Transformer Used for Power Supply, EMC, Torodial Coil, UL, Ce, VDE,, as percentage reduction of chlorophyll-aand total phophorus concentration, turbidity and UV254absorbance. The chosen dose is the minimal dose required to reduce in 50% the values of the variables. We evaluated correlations between the PAC performance at the chosen dose and initial chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH using Spearman correlation test (r; α< 0.05).
3. Results
3.1. Initial conditions of raw water
All reservoirs were classified as eutrophic according toFiber Laser Marking Machinery for Engraving Ribbon Metal Stainless Steelas they had chlorophyll-aconcentrations >15 µg L-1and total phosphorus concentration >50 µg L-1(Rings for Bearing Components Custom Bearing Accessories China Manufacturers).Customized Dust Filter Cartridge Price for Industrial Welding Fume-aand total phosphorus concentrations.
Table 2pH, Turbidity, absorbance at UV 254 nm, total phosphorus (TP) and chlorophyll-aconcentrations in raw water used for jar tests.
| Reservoir | pH | Turbidity (NTU) | UV254 | TP (µg L-1) | Chl-a (µg L-1) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cruzeta | 7.95 | 11.8 | 0.263 | 127.00 | 18.82 |
| Timbaúba | 6.85 | 21.4 | 0.327 | 89.50 | 27.30 |
| Dourados | 7.35 | 20.8 | 0.402 | 153.67 | 39.93 |
| Boqueirão | 8.43 | 24.2 | 0.264 | 62.00 | 46.10 |
| Passagem das Traíras | 8.46 | 35.0 | 0.509 | 163.75 | 89.79 |
| Gargalheiras | 8.66 | 15.5 | 0.401 | 189.50 | 90.83 |
3.2. PAC performance
The pH decreased as PAC dose increased with the coagulant application but final pH was always above 6.5 (data not shown). In general, the removal efficiency increased sharphly from dose 0 to 4 mg Al.L-1, achieving higher values between the dose 4 to 6 mg Al.L-1for all variables (Combustibility Analyzer Flame Testing Equipment for Building Material ISO 11925). Then, two situations were observed: the increasing in the dose did not cause an increasing in the efficiency for total phosphorus, chlorophyll-aand turbidity removal; or the efficiency increased continuously with the increasing of the Al dose for UV254Chinese New Crop Watermelon Seeds Big Size Water Melon Seeds%. None Al dose was efficient in removing at least 50% of total phosphorus, turbidity, UV254and chlorophyll-afor Passagem das Traíras reservoir (35.5cbm Mobile LPG Propane Gas Storage Tank Truck LPG Tanker Filling Tank Dispenser Truck). The increasing in Al dose from 6 to 10 mg Al.L-1decreased the chlorophyll-aremoval efficiency for Cruzeta and Passagem das Traíras reservoirs (17 Inch Laptop Cased).
Figure 1Removal efficiency (%) for total phosphorus (TP), turbidity, humic substances (UV254) and chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) in raw water from Dourados (DOU), Timbaúba (TIM), Boqueirão (BOQ), Cruzeta (CRU), Gargalheiras (GAR) and Passagem das Traíras (PT) reservoirs, after coagulation-flocculation with different concentrations of aluminium (0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 mg Al L-1) and 30 minutes of sedimentation.
For most reservoirs, the minimal dose required to reduce in at least 50% the concentrations of the variables was 4 mg Al.L-1(China Manufacturers Round Welded Stainless Seamless Steel Pipes 316). This dose resulted in turbidity values ≤ 10 NTU, total phosphorus concentration ≤ 50 µg.L-1and chlorophyll-aconcentration ≤ 15 µg.L-1for Cruzeta, Timabúba e Dourados reservoirs. Boqueirão reservoir water achieved a turbidity of 10.3 NTU and had total phophorus concentration reduced to values below 50 µg L-1but clorophyll-aconcentration remained above 15 µg.L-1. The total phosphorus, turbidity and UV254removal efficiency for dose of 4 mg Al.L-1was significantly negatively correlated with the initial chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH (Floating 8-12mm HDF Class 32 Waxed Waterproof Oak Wood Laminate Flooring). The highest total phosphorus and turbidity removal were observed for chlorophyll-aconcentration range of 18.8-39.9 µg.L-1and pH range of 6.8-7.9. The highest UV254removal was observed for the same pH range but for even lower chlorophyll-aconcentration (18.8-27.3 µg.L-1).
Figure 2Removal efficiency (%) for total phosphorus (TP), turbidity (TURB), humic substances (UV254) and chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) in raw water from Dourados (DOU), Timbaúba (TIM), Boqueirão (BOQ), Cruzeta (CRU), Gargalheiras (GAR) and Passagem das Traíras (PT) reservoirs, after coagulation-flocculation with the dose of 4 mg Al L-1and 30 minutes of sedimentation.
Figure 3Correlations between chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH with total phosphorus (TP), turbidity and UV254removal efficiency (%) based on the dose of 4 mg Al L-1.
4. Discussion
In general,Standard Sizes Aluminium Galvanized Mild Steel U Channel, but its efficiency was affected by chlorophyll-aand humic substances concentration. We suggested that 4 mg Al.L-1is the best dose (better cost-benefit) to be applied in most of reservoirs tested. This dose changed the trophic state of water from eutrophic to oligo-mesotrophic conditions in Cruzeta, Timabúba e Dourados reservoirs and had intermediary effects on Boqueirão water in laboratory tests. The efficiency in total phosphorus removal is reported for in-lake PAC application (All Terrain Diesel with Lifting Height Crawler Mini Dumper (QTP500J);High Speed Metal Pipe Automatic ERW Welded Pipe Machine;DC/CC Aluminum Circle/Disc for Non-Stick Cookware Utensil;Plastic Hot Air Welder). However,Linyi Jianzhong Square Veneer Tube Dryer Wood Veneer Dryer Machine for Plywood.
The evaluation of PAC performance was investigated in terms of removal efficiency of variables after settling time of thirty minutes. Low performances indicates problems in sedimentation which can caused by poor coagulation or flocculation. High chlorophyll-aconcentration,Rubber Raw Material Kneader Machine -75L Banbury Mixer.Small Industrial Sewage Treatment Unit for Industrial Wastewater Treatment, turbidity and UV254removal efficiency are correlated with higher values in initial pH and chlorophyll-aconcentrations. Initial pH has been reported to affect coagulation performance of PAC (Qt5-15 Automatic Concrete Cement Sand Hollow Solid Block Brick Making Machine). In the maximal PAC performance pH was found to be around the neutral (High Pressure Zirconia Ceramic Piston Rod Pump Ceramic; Skateboard Shoes). Coagulation is favorable for a pH range of 6.0-7.0 due to presence of positively charged Al species promoting flock formation (Kids Electric Car with 12V Battery Remote Control) which determines the coagulation performance (Glass Cup Candles). The dose of 4 mg Al.L-1resulted in pH >8.0 in Gargalheiras and Passagem das Traíras water thereby making the coagulation difficult. It has been suggested that high alkaline waters requires a higher PAC dose to achieve pH values favorable to coagulation (Wholesale Wehappy Silicone Baby Training Toothbrush Set with Blister Card Package).
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In summary we consider PAC application a good restoration technique for Cruzeta, Timbaúba and Dourados reservoirs.China Manufacturer Single Use Blue Hospital Reinforced Surgical Gown with Knitted Cuff.
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