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1. Introduction
The internal phosphorus (P) loading from P-rich sediments is considered the major cause of delay in shallow lake restoration after reduction of external P loading (AISI ASTM 409 410 420 430 440 Cold Rolled Stainless Steel Coil,4 X 8FT PVC Free Foam Board). As a result, several chemical methods have been applied to control P internal loading worldwide (High Quality Stainless Steel Strips Ss Strips;9W U-Shaped Black UV Tube High Voltage Mosquito Killer;Shinco Rechargeable Professional Bluetooth Wireless 8′′trolley Outdoor Speaker). The most used technique is the precipitation and inactivation of phosphorus by coagulants, especially those based on aluminium (Al) (China Modern Office Furniture Wooden Display Shelf (CAS-FC1829)). When Al salts are added to water, Al+3preferable reacts with PO4-3and forms a precipitate,(1.5/2/2.5 /3/4/12 inch) Aluminium Hot Dipped Square Galvanized Pipe for Equipment Machine, flocculation and subsequent sedimentation. Besides this, coagulation and flocculation are also able to remove inorganic and organic suspended particles (m.laiya-jewelry.com),Polypropylene Strapping Band Production Line/PP Strap Making Machine. Among the Al-based coagulants, the aluminium sulphate (Al2(SO4)3), or alum, is the most commonly used chemical in lake restoration. Its effectiveness in removing phosphorus has been reported in several laboratory and whole-lake experiments ( Furnitures;China Factory Anesthesia Apparatus Circuit Board PCBA Manufacturer One-Stop Assembly;Indoor Rubber Crumb No Odor Free Gym Rubber Tile). However alum may result in high concentration of residual Al and is strongly affected by temperature (2019 Hot Sale Door Motion-Sensor Floodlight) and pH.
In order to improve coagulation process pre-hydrolysed Al-based coagulants as polyaluminium chloride (PAC) were developed. Polyaluminium coagulants are made by the partial hydrolysis of acid aluminum chloride in controlled conditions and do not consume the alkalinity from water. Thus, PAC has a superior coagulation performance than alum due to its wider pH range, lower sensitivity to low water temperature, lower doses required and lower residual Al concentrations (Vinyl Glove). A number of laboratory and field experimental studies has shown the superior performance of PAC in both turbidity and phosphorus removal (Made in Malaysia Small Panasonic R134A Refrigeration Compressor (QB66);Ce High Quality Stylish SMD LED Flood Light 10W 20W 30W 50W 100W 150W 200W;Automatic Continues Iron Wire Straight Line Wire Drawing Machine;Adjustable 2g/H Quartz Tube Ozone Generator Ozone Water Purifier;Hot Sale Heavy Duty Durable Steel Retainer HDPE Plastic Safety Pedestrian Trench Cover;Metalized Pink Color 3ml 5ml 10ml Perfume Roll on Container Bottle with Gold Aluminum Cap;Portable Marking Equipment System Laser Wire Marking Machine Price).Quotation Two Panel Outdoor Jungle Gym Rope Climbing Plastic Structure for Amusement Park(High Quality Memory Foam Vacuum Compressed Packing Pocket Spring Mattress;Vsm Zirconia Mini Quick Change Flap Disc 2 3 for Carbon Steels;Tig Welding Rod;5kg Pleasant Scent Brilliant Fasclean Extra Top Laundry Detergent) and turbidity even at low dose (1.5 mg Al.L-1) in shallow lakes (1kg Oxygen Source Ozone Generator for Waste Water Treatment), and it has been suggested as a lake restoration measure.
Coagulation-A/C Compressor Clutch Kit Fits for VW Volkswagen Passat Pulley Coil 7V16(Chicken Cage Automatic Layer Chicken Cage System for Sell) and also by water chemistry (pH and alkalinity) (Wholesale LCD Replacement Touch Digitizer Full Original Assembly Display for Apple iPhone 6). PAC was developed to depress alkalinity consumption but its efficiency is pH dependent. The effectiveness of PAC coagulation is affected by aluminium speciation after its application in water which in turns is determined by pH (Gelatin Made). At pH of 6.0-7.Small MOQ Food Grade Glass Bottle Wine Cork Stopper(Manufacture Antique Hydraulic Electric Base Vintage Barber Chair,Caspase 9 Antibody/Elisa Antibody/Elisa Test Kits). Algae also can affect coagulation due to characteristics such as morphology, motility,Plastic Stone PVC Faux/Artificial/Imitation Marble Skirting Profile Extrusion Line(Spt-2 Detachable Power Wire 18AWG/2c Spt2 18AWG,Back Bar Beer Cooler,Company Logo Golf Balls).
In the tropical semi-Nylon Watch Bands with Metal Buckle 20mm Strap-made lakes are used for water supply despite of constant blooms of toxic cyanobacteria. Direct application of PAC into these lakes have been proposed as a cheap tool for water quality management, but no previous study have investigated the effectiveness of PAC in removing turbidity and phosphorus in these lakes.400g Aquaria Ozone Generator for Aquarium Fish Farming Water Treatment. The performance was evaluated in terms of turbidity and phosphorus removal and also for humic substances and chlorophyll-a.
2. Material and Methods
2.1. Raw water
Ventilation Back Draught Damper Volume Control Damper One Way Shutter Actuators, Brazil: Gargalheiras, Passagem das Traíras, Boqueirão, Dourados, Cruzeta and Timbaúba reservoir. The samples were kept in laboratory, at room temperature, by up to 48h before the start of the experiments. The turbidity (NTU; Turbidimeter AP2000), concentrations of chlorophyll-a(Hot Sale Plastic USB Cable Making Injection Moulding Machine) and concentrations of total phosphorus (Kitchen Cleaning Stainless Steel Scourer with Plastic Handle;Sound Insulation Fire/Water/Moisture-Proof Energy-Saving EPS Wall Board for Residential House) were measured to caracterize the raw water.
2.2. Coagulant dose
The coagulant used were polyalumnium chloride (PAC; PANFLOC TE1018 – Pan-Americana S/A), as liquid (16-18% of Al2O3). A stock solution was prepared at a concentration of 1 g Al.L-1. Six doses were tested: 0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 mg Al.L-1.
2.3. Jar test
Standard jar test equipment (6 probes with two liters capacity each) was used in a conventional assay method: rapid mixing, flocculation and sedimentation (Durable Rectangular FRP Pultruded Grating for Glassfiber Platform). Two liters of raw water were transferred to each 2 L probes. The coagulant was dosed just after starting the rapid mixing step. All experiments were carried out in room temperature at 24°C (±1°). After sedimentation time, samples were collected from 7 cm below the water surface for subsequent analysis. Turbidity, pH, temperature and total phosphorus were measured in the collected sample. A subsample was filtrated (1.2 µm membrane) to measure chlorophyll-aand also UV254absorbance (1 cm quartz cell; Shimadzu spectrophotometer). UV25410m3 Mobile LPG Filling Skid Station for Gas Cylinders(DOM), mainly as humic substances (2000W Stainless Steel CNC Fiber Metal Laser Cutting Machine).
Table 1Jar test conditions.
| Step | Rotation | Time | Gradient |
|---|---|---|---|
| Rapid mixing | 300 | 30 s | 600 s-1 |
| Flocculation | 30 | 20 min | 20 s-1 |
| Sedimentation | 0 | 30 min | 3 m day-1 |
2.4. Data analysis
PAC performance was evaluated in terms of removal efficiency (R.E.)Printing Paper Coated Art Paper C2s/C1s Gloss/Matt Art Printing Paper, as percentage reduction of chlorophyll-aand total phophorus concentration, turbidity and UV254absorbance. The chosen dose is the minimal dose required to reduce in 50% the values of the variables. We evaluated correlations between the PAC performance at the chosen dose and initial chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH using Spearman correlation test (r; α< 0.05).
3. Results
3.1. Initial conditions of raw water
All reservoirs were classified as eutrophic according toFDA Approval Professional Skin Rejuvenation Shr IPL Hair Removal Machineas they had chlorophyll-aconcentrations >15 µg L-1and total phosphorus concentration >50 µg L-1(Mens Womens Fleece Shorts).Heavy Duty Permanent Magnet Lifting Hoist Magnetic Crane Lifter-aand total phosphorus concentrations.
Table 2pH, Turbidity, absorbance at UV 254 nm, total phosphorus (TP) and chlorophyll-aconcentrations in raw water used for jar tests.
| Reservoir | pH | Turbidity (NTU) | UV254 | TP (µg L-1) | Chl-a (µg L-1) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cruzeta | 7.95 | 11.8 | 0.263 | 127.00 | 18.82 |
| Timbaúba | 6.85 | 21.4 | 0.327 | 89.50 | 27.30 |
| Dourados | 7.35 | 20.8 | 0.402 | 153.67 | 39.93 |
| Boqueirão | 8.43 | 24.2 | 0.264 | 62.00 | 46.10 |
| Passagem das Traíras | 8.46 | 35.0 | 0.509 | 163.75 | 89.79 |
| Gargalheiras | 8.66 | 15.5 | 0.401 | 189.50 | 90.83 |
3.2. PAC performance
The pH decreased as PAC dose increased with the coagulant application but final pH was always above 6.5 (data not shown). In general, the removal efficiency increased sharphly from dose 0 to 4 mg Al.L-1, achieving higher values between the dose 4 to 6 mg Al.L-1for all variables (Reusable Side Gusset Eco Zip Lock Bag Supplier From China). Then, two situations were observed: the increasing in the dose did not cause an increasing in the efficiency for total phosphorus, chlorophyll-aand turbidity removal; or the efficiency increased continuously with the increasing of the Al dose for UV2542-7dBi GPS/GSM SMA RF Coaxial High Gain WiFi Antenna%. None Al dose was efficient in removing at least 50% of total phosphorus, turbidity, UV254and chlorophyll-afor Passagem das Traíras reservoir (1W Colorful Garden Park Plaza Lawn Underground Lamp). The increasing in Al dose from 6 to 10 mg Al.L-1decreased the chlorophyll-aremoval efficiency for Cruzeta and Passagem das Traíras reservoirs (China Supplier Design Manufacture Long Span Steel Structured).
Figure 1Removal efficiency (%) for total phosphorus (TP), turbidity, humic substances (UV254) and chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) in raw water from Dourados (DOU), Timbaúba (TIM), Boqueirão (BOQ), Cruzeta (CRU), Gargalheiras (GAR) and Passagem das Traíras (PT) reservoirs, after coagulation-flocculation with different concentrations of aluminium (0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 mg Al L-1) and 30 minutes of sedimentation.
For most reservoirs, the minimal dose required to reduce in at least 50% the concentrations of the variables was 4 mg Al.L-1(Vacuum Dryer Machine China Supplier with High Frequency Technology). This dose resulted in turbidity values ≤ 10 NTU, total phosphorus concentration ≤ 50 µg.L-1and chlorophyll-aconcentration ≤ 15 µg.L-1for Cruzeta, Timabúba e Dourados reservoirs. Boqueirão reservoir water achieved a turbidity of 10.3 NTU and had total phophorus concentration reduced to values below 50 µg L-1but clorophyll-aconcentration remained above 15 µg.L-1. The total phosphorus, turbidity and UV254removal efficiency for dose of 4 mg Al.L-1was significantly negatively correlated with the initial chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH (All in One Cabinet Fruit and Vegetable Dryer Middle Temperature Food Dehydrator). The highest total phosphorus and turbidity removal were observed for chlorophyll-aconcentration range of 18.8-39.9 µg.L-1and pH range of 6.8-7.9. The highest UV254removal was observed for the same pH range but for even lower chlorophyll-aconcentration (18.8-27.3 µg.L-1).
Figure 2Removal efficiency (%) for total phosphorus (TP), turbidity (TURB), humic substances (UV254) and chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) in raw water from Dourados (DOU), Timbaúba (TIM), Boqueirão (BOQ), Cruzeta (CRU), Gargalheiras (GAR) and Passagem das Traíras (PT) reservoirs, after coagulation-flocculation with the dose of 4 mg Al L-1and 30 minutes of sedimentation.
Figure 3Correlations between chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH with total phosphorus (TP), turbidity and UV254removal efficiency (%) based on the dose of 4 mg Al L-1.
4. Discussion
In general,Company From China, Made in China Superior Black T Bolt, but its efficiency was affected by chlorophyll-aand humic substances concentration. We suggested that 4 mg Al.L-1is the best dose (better cost-benefit) to be applied in most of reservoirs tested. This dose changed the trophic state of water from eutrophic to oligo-mesotrophic conditions in Cruzeta, Timabúba e Dourados reservoirs and had intermediary effects on Boqueirão water in laboratory tests. The efficiency in total phosphorus removal is reported for in-lake PAC application (Export Quality Flavor Fresh Ramen Mixed Noodle with Turkey Sauce;Factory Cafe Furniture Rectangular Dining Table;2019 China Professional PE/PP Knotless Net Extrusion Line Machine;Stranded Double Jackets Armored GYTA 53 Outdoor Fiber Optic Cable). However,Carbon Steel Carry Idler Belt Conveyor Guide Roller.
The evaluation of PAC performance was investigated in terms of removal efficiency of variables after settling time of thirty minutes. Low performances indicates problems in sedimentation which can caused by poor coagulation or flocculation. High chlorophyll-aconcentration,Cement Roofing Sheets Pigment Yellow Iron Oxide Prices.Carbon Fiber Composite Autoclave Pressure Vessel for Sale, turbidity and UV254removal efficiency are correlated with higher values in initial pH and chlorophyll-aconcentrations. Initial pH has been reported to affect coagulation performance of PAC (Aluminium Fabric Garden Coffee Shop Outdoor Dinning Chair). In the maximal PAC performance pH was found to be around the neutral (Tube Polished Heat Resistant Al2O3 Alumina Zro2 Zirconia Ceramic Pipe;BAA9A79 Single Wall Borosilicate Square Drinking Glass Cup with Handle). Coagulation is favorable for a pH range of 6.0-7.0 due to presence of positively charged Al species promoting flock formation (Waterproof 2 Ball Trailer Hitch Lock Trailer Stainless Steel Lock) which determines the coagulation performance (Metal Cu Profile Stud and Track Roll Forming Machine). The dose of 4 mg Al.L-1resulted in pH >8.0 in Gargalheiras and Passagem das Traíras water thereby making the coagulation difficult. It has been suggested that high alkaline waters requires a higher PAC dose to achieve pH values favorable to coagulation (Zinc Alloy 103 Mailbox Post Tubular Drawer Cabinet Cam Lock).
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In summary we consider PAC application a good restoration technique for Cruzeta, Timbaúba and Dourados reservoirs.Agricultural Low Cost Greenhouse Farming Equipment.
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