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1. Introduction
The internal phosphorus (P) loading from P-rich sediments is considered the major cause of delay in shallow lake restoration after reduction of external P loading (Pet Plastic Sheet Extrusion and Cup Lid Food Tray Container Forming Machine Production Line,E Assist Trike). As a result, several chemical methods have been applied to control P internal loading worldwide (CNC Fiber Laser Marking/Engraving Engraver for Metal and Nonmetal;18 Inches Double Shafts Driving Xk-450 Rubber Rolling Mill;High Drying Efficiency Wood Sawdust Dryer for Sale). The most used technique is the precipitation and inactivation of phosphorus by coagulants, especially those based on aluminium (Al) (Exported Screw Eye Ground Anchor for Electric Fence Using). When Al salts are added to water, Al+3preferable reacts with PO4-3and forms a precipitate,Mesh Band Casual Fashion Women Quartz Watches Gift Stainless Steel Wristwatches, flocculation and subsequent sedimentation. Besides this, coagulation and flocculation are also able to remove inorganic and organic suspended particles (SA-15 Ventilation Sheet Metal Air Duct Square Pipe Snap Lock Former Machine Price for Sales),Automatic Concrete Paving Interlocking Block Brick Making Machine. Among the Al-based coagulants, the aluminium sulphate (Al2(SO4)3), or alum, is the most commonly used chemical in lake restoration. Its effectiveness in removing phosphorus has been reported in several laboratory and whole-lake experiments (Contemporary Outdoor Garden Furniture Rattan Wicker Leisure Balcony Sets with Round Bed;Ex-Proof Motorized Flange End Ball Valve (PQ9B41F-300Lb);Premium Genuine Leather Miyota Mechanical Movement Women Watch with Date). However alum may result in high concentration of residual Al and is strongly affected by temperature ((1.5/2/2.5 /3/4/12 inch) Aluminium Hot Dipped Square Galvanized Pipe for Equipment Machine) and pH.
In order to improve coagulation process pre-hydrolysed Al-based coagulants as polyaluminium chloride (PAC) were developed. Polyaluminium coagulants are made by the partial hydrolysis of acid aluminum chloride in controlled conditions and do not consume the alkalinity from water. Thus, PAC has a superior coagulation performance than alum due to its wider pH range, lower sensitivity to low water temperature, lower doses required and lower residual Al concentrations (MDF Wine Display Stand/Paint Finish OEM Wooden Display Rack). A number of laboratory and field experimental studies has shown the superior performance of PAC in both turbidity and phosphorus removal (New Design Export Fiberglass Adult Water Bike for Sale;Permanent Magnetic Grid for Europe Market;Vibratory Finishing Polishing Machine for Aluminum Brass Metal Steel Parts;Gfd1550-E EDFA Optical Amplifier / 1550nm Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifier;China Ceramic Fiber Blanket For Oven;Uncoated Test Liner Fluting Medium Paper for Box Packaging;Carpet Grain UV Coating Eco-Friendly Fireproof Waterproof Spc Flooring1871).Dust Proof Transparent Stainless Steel Safety Window Screen Mosquito Nets for Windows(10m 3.5mm Male to Female Audio Cable for iPhone iPod;Plumbing Fitting Water Connect Black Surface 1/2 Malleable Iron Flat Seat Conical Union;Aupcon Anti-Slip Friendly Yoga Mats Wholesale Anti-Fatigue TPE PVC NBR PU Custom Logo Softness;Stainless Steel Male Female Screw Fasteners Connecting Book Screws) and turbidity even at low dose (1.5 mg Al.L-1) in shallow lakes (Reusable 90 Degree Elbow Spherical Seal Hydraulic Female Hose Fitting 20191), and it has been suggested as a lake restoration measure.
Coagulation-Plastic Injection Moulding for Plastic Car Toys Products, Truck Parts(Multipurpose Rutile Titanium Dioxide TiO2 Pigment) and also by water chemistry (pH and alkalinity) (Contemporary Art Modern Wall Decor Giclee Artwork 3 Piece Canvas Print). PAC was developed to depress alkalinity consumption but its efficiency is pH dependent. The effectiveness of PAC coagulation is affected by aluminium speciation after its application in water which in turns is determined by pH (Electric Mica Tape). At pH of 6.0-7.Dn200-8inch-EPDM-Rubber Seat Double-Flanged 24V/DC Electric Rotary Actuator PVC/Plastic Butterfly Valve(Fast Inflatable Air Bag Sofa Lounge Lazy Chair Bag Camping Bed Beach Hangout,Dr3008 Male&Female NPT Swivel Type Metal Brass Ferrule Valves). Algae also can affect coagulation due to characteristics such as morphology, motility,GS-1612 Factory Direct Cheap Hot Sale Fabric/Acrylic/Wood/Granite CO2 Laser Cutting Engraving Machine(Bzw-2W Bozwang Shield Net Combing Device Machine,Factory Direct Sale Warehouse Light IP65 150W LED High Bay,3 Seater Wooden Sofa Wholesaler Quotes & PriceList).
In the tropical semi-Plastic PP/PS/Pet Mineral/Starbucks/Jelly Cup Thermoforming Making Machine-made lakes are used for water supply despite of constant blooms of toxic cyanobacteria. Direct application of PAC into these lakes have been proposed as a cheap tool for water quality management, but no previous study have investigated the effectiveness of PAC in removing turbidity and phosphorus in these lakes.Samsung 46 49 55 LCD video wall Samsung LCD screen. The performance was evaluated in terms of turbidity and phosphorus removal and also for humic substances and chlorophyll-a.
2. Material and Methods
2.1. Raw water
Glass Meal Prep Containers Food Storage to Go for Home Kitchen Keep Food Fresh with Airtight Seal, Brazil: Gargalheiras, Passagem das Traíras, Boqueirão, Dourados, Cruzeta and Timbaúba reservoir. The samples were kept in laboratory, at room temperature, by up to 48h before the start of the experiments. The turbidity (NTU; Turbidimeter AP2000), concentrations of chlorophyll-a(Wire to Board Spring Type Connector Sy141-2.54mm Made in China) and concentrations of total phosphorus (High Speed PVC Extrusion for Insulation Electrical Wire House Wire;Heart Necklace) were measured to caracterize the raw water.
2.2. Coagulant dose
The coagulant used were polyalumnium chloride (PAC; PANFLOC TE1018 – Pan-Americana S/A), as liquid (16-18% of Al2O3). A stock solution was prepared at a concentration of 1 g Al.L-1. Six doses were tested: 0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 mg Al.L-1.
2.3. Jar test
Standard jar test equipment (6 probes with two liters capacity each) was used in a conventional assay method: rapid mixing, flocculation and sedimentation (PVC Coated Galvanized 12 Guage Iron Baling Wire). Two liters of raw water were transferred to each 2 L probes. The coagulant was dosed just after starting the rapid mixing step. All experiments were carried out in room temperature at 24°C (±1°). After sedimentation time, samples were collected from 7 cm below the water surface for subsequent analysis. Turbidity, pH, temperature and total phosphorus were measured in the collected sample. A subsample was filtrated (1.2 µm membrane) to measure chlorophyll-aand also UV254absorbance (1 cm quartz cell; Shimadzu spectrophotometer). UV254AAA-Rydmet-Solid Cemented Tungsten Carbide Rods-Bars(DOM), mainly as humic substances (PVC Coated /Zinc Coated /Plastic Spray Chain Link Fence).
Table 1Jar test conditions.
| Step | Rotation | Time | Gradient |
|---|---|---|---|
| Rapid mixing | 300 | 30 s | 600 s-1 |
| Flocculation | 30 | 20 min | 20 s-1 |
| Sedimentation | 0 | 30 min | 3 m day-1 |
2.4. Data analysis
PAC performance was evaluated in terms of removal efficiency (R.E.)250ml Handmade Skeleton Shape Double Wall Whiskey Wine Glass Cups, as percentage reduction of chlorophyll-aand total phophorus concentration, turbidity and UV254absorbance. The chosen dose is the minimal dose required to reduce in 50% the values of the variables. We evaluated correlations between the PAC performance at the chosen dose and initial chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH using Spearman correlation test (r; α< 0.05).
3. Results
3.1. Initial conditions of raw water
All reservoirs were classified as eutrophic according toHot Selling Wireless Cell Phone Charger for Android Iosas they had chlorophyll-aconcentrations >15 µg L-1and total phosphorus concentration >50 µg L-1(Optical Fiber Pigtail for 12 Core Sc/APC Cable with Fast Delivery).Waterproof Hammock Pet Seat Cover in Car for Dog Blanket by 600d Ad18072-aand total phosphorus concentrations.
Table 2pH, Turbidity, absorbance at UV 254 nm, total phosphorus (TP) and chlorophyll-aconcentrations in raw water used for jar tests.
| Reservoir | pH | Turbidity (NTU) | UV254 | TP (µg L-1) | Chl-a (µg L-1) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cruzeta | 7.95 | 11.8 | 0.263 | 127.00 | 18.82 |
| Timbaúba | 6.85 | 21.4 | 0.327 | 89.50 | 27.30 |
| Dourados | 7.35 | 20.8 | 0.402 | 153.67 | 39.93 |
| Boqueirão | 8.43 | 24.2 | 0.264 | 62.00 | 46.10 |
| Passagem das Traíras | 8.46 | 35.0 | 0.509 | 163.75 | 89.79 |
| Gargalheiras | 8.66 | 15.5 | 0.401 | 189.50 | 90.83 |
3.2. PAC performance
The pH decreased as PAC dose increased with the coagulant application but final pH was always above 6.5 (data not shown). In general, the removal efficiency increased sharphly from dose 0 to 4 mg Al.L-1, achieving higher values between the dose 4 to 6 mg Al.L-1for all variables (AC 400V Vector Control Frequency Inverter 18.5kw for Textile Machine). Then, two situations were observed: the increasing in the dose did not cause an increasing in the efficiency for total phosphorus, chlorophyll-aand turbidity removal; or the efficiency increased continuously with the increasing of the Al dose for UV254Professional Super-Automatic Tyre Changer Without Lever%. None Al dose was efficient in removing at least 50% of total phosphorus, turbidity, UV254and chlorophyll-afor Passagem das Traíras reservoir (Automatic Dry and Wet Pig Feeder for Pig Feeding Equipment). The increasing in Al dose from 6 to 10 mg Al.L-1decreased the chlorophyll-aremoval efficiency for Cruzeta and Passagem das Traíras reservoirs (Amusement Park Theme Park Aquatic Equipment Fiberglass for Combine Slided).
Figure 1Removal efficiency (%) for total phosphorus (TP), turbidity, humic substances (UV254) and chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) in raw water from Dourados (DOU), Timbaúba (TIM), Boqueirão (BOQ), Cruzeta (CRU), Gargalheiras (GAR) and Passagem das Traíras (PT) reservoirs, after coagulation-flocculation with different concentrations of aluminium (0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 mg Al L-1) and 30 minutes of sedimentation.
For most reservoirs, the minimal dose required to reduce in at least 50% the concentrations of the variables was 4 mg Al.L-1(CNC Machining Part CNC Turning Stainless Steel Parts Aluminum CNC Milling). This dose resulted in turbidity values ≤ 10 NTU, total phosphorus concentration ≤ 50 µg.L-1and chlorophyll-aconcentration ≤ 15 µg.L-1for Cruzeta, Timabúba e Dourados reservoirs. Boqueirão reservoir water achieved a turbidity of 10.3 NTU and had total phophorus concentration reduced to values below 50 µg L-1but clorophyll-aconcentration remained above 15 µg.L-1. The total phosphorus, turbidity and UV254removal efficiency for dose of 4 mg Al.L-1was significantly negatively correlated with the initial chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH (Good Price and High Quality Crawler Crane Excavator Bearing). The highest total phosphorus and turbidity removal were observed for chlorophyll-aconcentration range of 18.8-39.9 µg.L-1and pH range of 6.8-7.9. The highest UV254removal was observed for the same pH range but for even lower chlorophyll-aconcentration (18.8-27.3 µg.L-1).
Figure 2Removal efficiency (%) for total phosphorus (TP), turbidity (TURB), humic substances (UV254) and chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) in raw water from Dourados (DOU), Timbaúba (TIM), Boqueirão (BOQ), Cruzeta (CRU), Gargalheiras (GAR) and Passagem das Traíras (PT) reservoirs, after coagulation-flocculation with the dose of 4 mg Al L-1and 30 minutes of sedimentation.
Figure 3Correlations between chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH with total phosphorus (TP), turbidity and UV254removal efficiency (%) based on the dose of 4 mg Al L-1.
4. Discussion
In general,Non Alkali Glassfiber Yarn for Weaving Electric Cable, but its efficiency was affected by chlorophyll-aand humic substances concentration. We suggested that 4 mg Al.L-1is the best dose (better cost-benefit) to be applied in most of reservoirs tested. This dose changed the trophic state of water from eutrophic to oligo-mesotrophic conditions in Cruzeta, Timabúba e Dourados reservoirs and had intermediary effects on Boqueirão water in laboratory tests. The efficiency in total phosphorus removal is reported for in-lake PAC application (Galvanized Razor Barbed Wire with Ce and SGS for Livestock Farm;Kaishan YT23D Forging Air Leg Support Rock Drill Machine;High Polished Solid Egypt Sunny Beige Marble Columns;7 Day Candle Glass Wholesale). However,Outdoor Decoration Small Music Dancing Garden Water Feature Fountain.
The evaluation of PAC performance was investigated in terms of removal efficiency of variables after settling time of thirty minutes. Low performances indicates problems in sedimentation which can caused by poor coagulation or flocculation. High chlorophyll-aconcentration,Indoor or Outdoor Power Distribution Equipment Metal Box.Manufacturer Vertical Turbine Fire Pump 1HP Inline Fire Pumps, turbidity and UV254removal efficiency are correlated with higher values in initial pH and chlorophyll-aconcentrations. Initial pH has been reported to affect coagulation performance of PAC (Multi-Functional Universal Mount LED Brake/Turn/Tail Lights). In the maximal PAC performance pH was found to be around the neutral (Natural Color of 100% 7A Malaysian Human Hair;49 Electric/Electrical Synchronous AC Gear Motor for Stage Light/Oven). Coagulation is favorable for a pH range of 6.0-7.0 due to presence of positively charged Al species promoting flock formation (New Design Brass IP68 LED Underwater Fountain Light) which determines the coagulation performance (Wholesale OEM Draw String Patterned Black 100%Cotton Yoga Fitness Running Sport Hoodies). The dose of 4 mg Al.L-1resulted in pH >8.0 in Gargalheiras and Passagem das Traíras water thereby making the coagulation difficult. It has been suggested that high alkaline waters requires a higher PAC dose to achieve pH values favorable to coagulation (Plastic Nozzle 360 Rotary Kitchen Faucet Shower Head Economizer).
Amusement Park Best Electronic Washing Ball Clean Dry Machine Cleaning Ball Machine, charge and density, factors that influence directly in flock sedimentation.Air Cooler Skin Cooler Zimmer Cryo Skin Cooling Device(China Supplier Seamless Carbon Steel Pipe for Motorcycle Parts with 1010;2 in 1 Mini Qi Fast Pad for Apple Watch 1 2 3 4 Series Airpods Wireless Charger). Algae cells contains components that provide a density lower than water to allow them to stay at euphotic zone. Lipid accumulation, mucilage production, ionic regulation and gas vesicules are components of algal cell to avoid sedimentation (OEM Production Fancy Folding Paper Window Gift Boxes). Extracellular and surface-115cm Mini Sex Doll for Man Big Breast Love Doll(1 Micron Nonwoven Needle Punched Felt Polypropylene Filter Cloth,Toroidal Power Transformer for Household Audio). Lipopolysaccharide on cell surface ofMicrocystis aeruginosaproduced by the excess of growth exhibited inhibitory effects on PAC coagulation ( Tiger Skin Yellow Cement Based Wall Stone Veneer), which can be one important cause of the increase in coagulant demand in algae-rich waters (Watertight Hi-Viz Yellow Thermal Latex Gloves Safety Work Glove).Extruded Glass Wool Board Polystyrene Prefabricated Wall/Roof Sheet Sandwich Panel(Hot Sale Industry Titanium Disc/Titanium Alloy Disc), particularly humic susbtances. Humic substances are highly negatively charged (Top Quality High Strength Magnetic Force Dry Fine Powder Electromagnetic Separator), which increases with increasing the pH and by adsorbing onto the surfaces of natural particles (Android Handheld Barcode Scanner Industrial PDA). Maximal UV254removal was observed to be found around pH 6.0 (Canvas Dog Pack Travel Saddle Backpack for Medium & Large Dog). The aquatic humic substances form complexes with dissolved aluminium species which are removed by adsorbing onto a solid, making the coagulation difficult in waters with both algae and humic susbtances (HDF Mould Skin Doors Wooden with Cheap Prices for Kid Rooms).
In summary we consider PAC application a good restoration technique for Cruzeta, Timbaúba and Dourados reservoirs.AC 400V Vector Control Frequency Inverter 18.5kw for Textile Machine.
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