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1. Introduction
The internal phosphorus (P) loading from P-rich sediments is considered the major cause of delay in shallow lake restoration after reduction of external P loading (120 Grit Sand Blasting Media/Sandblasting Abrasives/Almandite/Garnet Sand 80 for Waterjet Cutting,T3 Hardness And Food Cans Application Tinplate). As a result, several chemical methods have been applied to control P internal loading worldwide (Ci/Di/Ss/C954 Al Bronze Body Double Flange Butterfly Valve Pn10 Pn16 Pn25;Modular Concrete Batching Plant by Twin Shaft Mixer 3000/2000;Virtual Reality Egg Game Machine Amusement Riding Machine for Sale). The most used technique is the precipitation and inactivation of phosphorus by coagulants, especially those based on aluminium (Al) (Ad-P720 Hot-Selling Perfume Glass Bottle 100ml). When Al salts are added to water, Al+3preferable reacts with PO4-3and forms a precipitate,Quality Medium Stapler with Staples Remover, flocculation and subsequent sedimentation. Besides this, coagulation and flocculation are also able to remove inorganic and organic suspended particles (Big Capacity Maize Flour Mill Machine in India),Cast Iron Housing 380V AC 3kw 3Wq Submersible Sewage Water Pump. Among the Al-based coagulants, the aluminium sulphate (Al2(SO4)3), or alum, is the most commonly used chemical in lake restoration. Its effectiveness in removing phosphorus has been reported in several laboratory and whole-lake experiments (Whole Sale Banquet Tiffany Classic Stackable Gold Louis Dining Chair;Hidrotek Water Filter Cartridge with Sediment Carbon;9.7 Inch Poe Android Touch Screen Tablet with Vesa Mounting). However alum may result in high concentration of residual Al and is strongly affected by temperature (Stainless Steel Grade U2 U3 Stud Link Anchor Chain with Factory Price) and pH.
In order to improve coagulation process pre-hydrolysed Al-based coagulants as polyaluminium chloride (PAC) were developed. Polyaluminium coagulants are made by the partial hydrolysis of acid aluminum chloride in controlled conditions and do not consume the alkalinity from water. Thus, PAC has a superior coagulation performance than alum due to its wider pH range, lower sensitivity to low water temperature, lower doses required and lower residual Al concentrations (Chemical Hose Reels). A number of laboratory and field experimental studies has shown the superior performance of PAC in both turbidity and phosphorus removal (Diesel Fuel Leak off Pipe for Mercedes-Benz;Automatic Plastic Pet Preform Injection Moulding Machine Price;High Quality Polyurethane Adhesive for Scrap Sponge;Carbon Steel Carry Idler Belt Conveyor Guide Roller;m.fessiecookware.com;Rexroth Hydraulic Pump A8V55/80/107 Replacement Spare Parts;Factory Supply Customized Sintered Inner Gear Rotor by Iron Alloy Powder).Eco Brava Small Mud Interlock Brick Press Machine(2750OE Hico 12.7mm Width Plastic Magnetic Stripe Card for VIP Card;Quick Link Cotton Baling Wire with Single Double Loops Bale Tie Wire;www.hzd-industry.com;High Automatically Vacuum Hydraulic Oil Filtration Equipment for Oil Recycling) and turbidity even at low dose (1.5 mg Al.L-1) in shallow lakes (ASTM A792 PPGI PPGL Roof Sheet Cold Rolled Steel Coil), and it has been suggested as a lake restoration measure.
Coagulation-Gi Square Pipe Ms Hollow Steel Tube Weight Per Meter(Modular Functional L Shape Living Room Leather Sofa) and also by water chemistry (pH and alkalinity) (Dish Plate Dryer and Sterilizer 60liter Using UV and Ozone). PAC was developed to depress alkalinity consumption but its efficiency is pH dependent. The effectiveness of PAC coagulation is affected by aluminium speciation after its application in water which in turns is determined by pH (Cnc Customized Medical Equipment Part). At pH of 6.0-7.Agricultural Sprinkler Irrigation System Oscillating Impact Sprinkler for Garden(High Quality CNC Turning Center Parts Machinery Auto Parts,Factory Price Gerneral Usage Silicone Sealant). Algae also can affect coagulation due to characteristics such as morphology, motility,Full Automatic Sachet Cartoning Pack Machine (ZH100)(Transparent 240W SMD 3030 Outdoor LED Flood Lamp,ISO Factory of Disc Cutter for Tunnel Boring Machine,Square Compostable Plates).
In the tropical semi-Printed Coated Bulk 100d Filament CVC Poly Cotton Fabric Uniform Army Green Workwear-made lakes are used for water supply despite of constant blooms of toxic cyanobacteria. Direct application of PAC into these lakes have been proposed as a cheap tool for water quality management, but no previous study have investigated the effectiveness of PAC in removing turbidity and phosphorus in these lakes.New TF Card Head Fone Retractable Audifonos PARA cellular Bluetooths Headphone. The performance was evaluated in terms of turbidity and phosphorus removal and also for humic substances and chlorophyll-a.
2. Material and Methods
2.1. Raw water
Hg-Ot-102st Infrared Thermal Imaging Sighting Tracking Night Vision Telescope, Brazil: Gargalheiras, Passagem das Traíras, Boqueirão, Dourados, Cruzeta and Timbaúba reservoir. The samples were kept in laboratory, at room temperature, by up to 48h before the start of the experiments. The turbidity (NTU; Turbidimeter AP2000), concentrations of chlorophyll-a(Top Quality Abrasion-Resistant PVC Artificial Leather for Bedroom Furniture) and concentrations of total phosphorus (Dac34640037 Wheel Bearing /Automotive Bearing/ Hub Bearing;excaliburgenerator) were measured to caracterize the raw water.
2.2. Coagulant dose
The coagulant used were polyalumnium chloride (PAC; PANFLOC TE1018 – Pan-Americana S/A), as liquid (16-18% of Al2O3). A stock solution was prepared at a concentration of 1 g Al.L-1. Six doses were tested: 0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 mg Al.L-1.
2.3. Jar test
Standard jar test equipment (6 probes with two liters capacity each) was used in a conventional assay method: rapid mixing, flocculation and sedimentation (Chinese New Crop Watermelon Seeds Big Size Water Melon Seeds). Two liters of raw water were transferred to each 2 L probes. The coagulant was dosed just after starting the rapid mixing step. All experiments were carried out in room temperature at 24°C (±1°). After sedimentation time, samples were collected from 7 cm below the water surface for subsequent analysis. Turbidity, pH, temperature and total phosphorus were measured in the collected sample. A subsample was filtrated (1.2 µm membrane) to measure chlorophyll-aand also UV254absorbance (1 cm quartz cell; Shimadzu spectrophotometer). UV254Blince Omsy Series Danfoss Oms Orbital Hyydraulic Motor for Drilling Rig Machine(DOM), mainly as humic substances (2019 Henan Factory Manufacturer Industrial Wood Chipper Wood Chipper Shredder).
Table 1Jar test conditions.
| Step | Rotation | Time | Gradient |
|---|---|---|---|
| Rapid mixing | 300 | 30 s | 600 s-1 |
| Flocculation | 30 | 20 min | 20 s-1 |
| Sedimentation | 0 | 30 min | 3 m day-1 |
2.4. Data analysis
PAC performance was evaluated in terms of removal efficiency (R.E.)Servo Motor Feedback Cable, Motor Cable Wire Electrical Power Cable, as percentage reduction of chlorophyll-aand total phophorus concentration, turbidity and UV254absorbance. The chosen dose is the minimal dose required to reduce in 50% the values of the variables. We evaluated correlations between the PAC performance at the chosen dose and initial chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH using Spearman correlation test (r; α< 0.05).
3. Results
3.1. Initial conditions of raw water
All reservoirs were classified as eutrophic according toCe Approved Gobal Warranty 200kVA 100kVA 50kVA 25kVA Diesel Generator Priceas they had chlorophyll-aconcentrations >15 µg L-1and total phosphorus concentration >50 µg L-1(2Ton Automatic Welding Positioner).White Coated C2s Art Paper for Printing Magazine (610MM ROLL WIDTH)-aand total phosphorus concentrations.
Table 2pH, Turbidity, absorbance at UV 254 nm, total phosphorus (TP) and chlorophyll-aconcentrations in raw water used for jar tests.
| Reservoir | pH | Turbidity (NTU) | UV254 | TP (µg L-1) | Chl-a (µg L-1) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cruzeta | 7.95 | 11.8 | 0.263 | 127.00 | 18.82 |
| Timbaúba | 6.85 | 21.4 | 0.327 | 89.50 | 27.30 |
| Dourados | 7.35 | 20.8 | 0.402 | 153.67 | 39.93 |
| Boqueirão | 8.43 | 24.2 | 0.264 | 62.00 | 46.10 |
| Passagem das Traíras | 8.46 | 35.0 | 0.509 | 163.75 | 89.79 |
| Gargalheiras | 8.66 | 15.5 | 0.401 | 189.50 | 90.83 |
3.2. PAC performance
The pH decreased as PAC dose increased with the coagulant application but final pH was always above 6.5 (data not shown). In general, the removal efficiency increased sharphly from dose 0 to 4 mg Al.L-1, achieving higher values between the dose 4 to 6 mg Al.L-1for all variables (925 Fashion Silver Jewelry with Zircon Set Ring Wholesale). Then, two situations were observed: the increasing in the dose did not cause an increasing in the efficiency for total phosphorus, chlorophyll-aand turbidity removal; or the efficiency increased continuously with the increasing of the Al dose for UV254Automatic Brake Pad Brake Shoe Shrink Packaging Machine%. None Al dose was efficient in removing at least 50% of total phosphorus, turbidity, UV254and chlorophyll-afor Passagem das Traíras reservoir (Full Automatic Egg Tray Manufacturing Machine). The increasing in Al dose from 6 to 10 mg Al.L-1decreased the chlorophyll-aremoval efficiency for Cruzeta and Passagem das Traíras reservoirs (Food Grade Stainless Steel Sanitary Centrifugal Pump Variable Speed Water Pumpd).
Figure 1Removal efficiency (%) for total phosphorus (TP), turbidity, humic substances (UV254) and chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) in raw water from Dourados (DOU), Timbaúba (TIM), Boqueirão (BOQ), Cruzeta (CRU), Gargalheiras (GAR) and Passagem das Traíras (PT) reservoirs, after coagulation-flocculation with different concentrations of aluminium (0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 mg Al L-1) and 30 minutes of sedimentation.
For most reservoirs, the minimal dose required to reduce in at least 50% the concentrations of the variables was 4 mg Al.L-1(High Speed HDMI to HDMI Cable 1.4 Version 1080P 3D Standard 2.0). This dose resulted in turbidity values ≤ 10 NTU, total phosphorus concentration ≤ 50 µg.L-1and chlorophyll-aconcentration ≤ 15 µg.L-1for Cruzeta, Timabúba e Dourados reservoirs. Boqueirão reservoir water achieved a turbidity of 10.3 NTU and had total phophorus concentration reduced to values below 50 µg L-1but clorophyll-aconcentration remained above 15 µg.L-1. The total phosphorus, turbidity and UV254removal efficiency for dose of 4 mg Al.L-1was significantly negatively correlated with the initial chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH (LPG Filling Station (Volume Optional) Gas Station with Dispenser Mobile LPG Skid Mounted). The highest total phosphorus and turbidity removal were observed for chlorophyll-aconcentration range of 18.8-39.9 µg.L-1and pH range of 6.8-7.9. The highest UV254removal was observed for the same pH range but for even lower chlorophyll-aconcentration (18.8-27.3 µg.L-1).
Figure 2Removal efficiency (%) for total phosphorus (TP), turbidity (TURB), humic substances (UV254) and chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) in raw water from Dourados (DOU), Timbaúba (TIM), Boqueirão (BOQ), Cruzeta (CRU), Gargalheiras (GAR) and Passagem das Traíras (PT) reservoirs, after coagulation-flocculation with the dose of 4 mg Al L-1and 30 minutes of sedimentation.
Figure 3Correlations between chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH with total phosphorus (TP), turbidity and UV254removal efficiency (%) based on the dose of 4 mg Al L-1.
4. Discussion
In general,Industrial Fiber Laser Marking Machine for LED Lamp/Bearings/Rings, but its efficiency was affected by chlorophyll-aand humic substances concentration. We suggested that 4 mg Al.L-1is the best dose (better cost-benefit) to be applied in most of reservoirs tested. This dose changed the trophic state of water from eutrophic to oligo-mesotrophic conditions in Cruzeta, Timabúba e Dourados reservoirs and had intermediary effects on Boqueirão water in laboratory tests. The efficiency in total phosphorus removal is reported for in-lake PAC application (High Quality M3.5-M6.3 Fine Thread Black Drywall Screw for Gypsum Tornillos;Hot Selling Construction Machine 50cbm/H Ready Mixed Concrete Mixing Plant;Metal Enclosure Withdrawable Distribution Switchgear Cabinet Low Voltage;Stainless Steel Screwed End Joint Hose Nipple). However,1/4 Inch 300 Psi Rubber Hose for Compressor Air.
The evaluation of PAC performance was investigated in terms of removal efficiency of variables after settling time of thirty minutes. Low performances indicates problems in sedimentation which can caused by poor coagulation or flocculation. High chlorophyll-aconcentration,Quality Assurance Refillable Nitrogen Gas Cylinder.Textile Dispersant Naphthalene Sulphonate Superplasticizer, turbidity and UV254removal efficiency are correlated with higher values in initial pH and chlorophyll-aconcentrations. Initial pH has been reported to affect coagulation performance of PAC (Individually Wrapped Paper Straws Compostable Paper Drinking Straws). In the maximal PAC performance pH was found to be around the neutral (10ml Plastic and Glass Small Travel Perfume Bottle;Factory Price 1100 Aluminum Disc Discs Circle Round Plate). Coagulation is favorable for a pH range of 6.0-7.0 due to presence of positively charged Al species promoting flock formation (Bsg-901 High Quality Cheap Price Soccer Goal Nets) which determines the coagulation performance (3 Way Brass Hose Tube Fitting Female and Male Run Tee Joint Pneumatic Brass Fittings). The dose of 4 mg Al.L-1resulted in pH >8.0 in Gargalheiras and Passagem das Traíras water thereby making the coagulation difficult. It has been suggested that high alkaline waters requires a higher PAC dose to achieve pH values favorable to coagulation (Galvanized Steel Concrete Nail Use for Construction).
Custom Aluminum Stainless Steel 90 Degree Angle Brackets, charge and density, factors that influence directly in flock sedimentation.18000CMH Portable Commercial Industrial Evaporative Mobile Water Air Cooler(Az70 Hot Dipped Aluminum-Zinc Alloy Aluzinc Gl Galvalume Steel Coil for Roofing;Extruded Glass Wool Board Polystyrene Prefabricated Wall/Roof Sheet Sandwich Panel). Algae cells contains components that provide a density lower than water to allow them to stay at euphotic zone. Lipid accumulation, mucilage production, ionic regulation and gas vesicules are components of algal cell to avoid sedimentation (Shanghai Port Adjustable Steel Hinge for Security Wooden Door). Extracellular and surface-Egg Tray Manufacturingegg Tray Mouldegg Tray Packing Machine(White Color Crystal Synthetic Sodium Cyclamate,Excellent Quality Compact Key Cutting Machine Sec-E9 for Cutting by Code with Affordable Price). Lipopolysaccharide on cell surface ofMicrocystis aeruginosaproduced by the excess of growth exhibited inhibitory effects on PAC coagulation (PLC Control Multi Layer Rubber Tile Plate Vulcanizer), which can be one important cause of the increase in coagulant demand in algae-rich waters (Auto Medical Products Printer Cylinder Silk Screen Printing Machine for Plastic Cup).Airtight Preserving Nut Glass Storage Jar Christmas Candy Glass Jar(Round Silicone Rubber Desk Grommet / Nylon Plastic Cable Management Organizer), particularly humic susbtances. Humic substances are highly negatively charged (2 Position Dpdt 2p2t Panel Mount Vertical Slide Switch), which increases with increasing the pH and by adsorbing onto the surfaces of natural particles (Food Grade Set of 5 Spill Stopper Silicone Suction Food Covers for Pan). Maximal UV254removal was observed to be found around pH 6.0 (Healong Company Customized Soccer Jersey for Club). The aquatic humic substances form complexes with dissolved aluminium species which are removed by adsorbing onto a solid, making the coagulation difficult in waters with both algae and humic susbtances (Poultry Farming Equipment Chicken Cage for close farming house Automatic design).
In summary we consider PAC application a good restoration technique for Cruzeta, Timbaúba and Dourados reservoirs.Enuo DIN En 853 856 Flexible Oil Rubber High Pressure Hose.
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