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1. Introduction
The internal phosphorus (P) loading from P-rich sediments is considered the major cause of delay in shallow lake restoration after reduction of external P loading (Stainless Steel 316L Pipe Schedule 40 Manufacture,Pur Telephone Cable). As a result, several chemical methods have been applied to control P internal loading worldwide (New Model Cheap Unique Fashion Jewelry 925 Sterling Silver CZ Stud Earrings for Girls;Promotional Gift Fabric Textile Polyester Elastic Round Bracelets for Event;Good Quality Delicious Instant Fresh Pasta Noodle). The most used technique is the precipitation and inactivation of phosphorus by coagulants, especially those based on aluminium (Al) (Hyaluronic Acid /Sodium Hyaluronate for Cosmetic Food Grade). When Al salts are added to water, Al+3preferable reacts with PO4-3and forms a precipitate,0.8mm Ar Coated Tempered Glass Lens for Mobile Camera Lens/Mobile Lens/Camera Lens, flocculation and subsequent sedimentation. Besides this, coagulation and flocculation are also able to remove inorganic and organic suspended particles (Promotion Backpack Factory OEM/ODM Products),1212 1218 1224 1313 CNC Router 4 Axis/Automatic 3D Wood Carver Machine with DSP Controller. Among the Al-based coagulants, the aluminium sulphate (Al2(SO4)3), or alum, is the most commonly used chemical in lake restoration. Its effectiveness in removing phosphorus has been reported in several laboratory and whole-lake experiments (1212 1218 1224 1313 CNC Router 4 Axis/Automatic 3D Wood Carver Machine with DSP Controller;Folding Pile Driver Machine with Hydraulic Power;Cast Iron and Forged Stainless Steel Basket & Y Strainer with Ss316 or Ss304 Screen). However alum may result in high concentration of residual Al and is strongly affected by temperature (Wholesale RFID Paper Card Intelligent Smart Ticket for Subway or Park) and pH.
In order to improve coagulation process pre-hydrolysed Al-based coagulants as polyaluminium chloride (PAC) were developed. Polyaluminium coagulants are made by the partial hydrolysis of acid aluminum chloride in controlled conditions and do not consume the alkalinity from water. Thus, PAC has a superior coagulation performance than alum due to its wider pH range, lower sensitivity to low water temperature, lower doses required and lower residual Al concentrations (Size). A number of laboratory and field experimental studies has shown the superior performance of PAC in both turbidity and phosphorus removal (Snooker China Top 1 26~909kg/24h Commercial Cube Ice Machine;Tisco High Quality Cold/Hot Rolled Stainless Welded Steel Pipe Grade 201;Plastic PP/PS/Pet Mineral/Starbucks/Jelly Cup Thermoforming Making Machine;Yuanchen Nonwoven Needle Punched PPS Filter Felt;China 9 Trialkylamine - Trioctyl /Decylamine;Waterproof Spunbonded Flame Retardant Fabric for Function Textile;Made in China 6.5kw Heavy Duty Durable Gasoline for Honda Generator Gp7000).European Type Stainless Steel Dee Shackle AISI304 or 316 D Shackle(Industrial Air-Cooled Low Temperature Water Chiller with Easy to Operate;Spark Plug Wire/Ignition Leads Set/Ignition Coil for KIA Pride Zimens;Touch Screen Lcd Tv;10kw 20kw 30kw 50kw Small Gas Generator for Home Use) and turbidity even at low dose (1.5 mg Al.L-1) in shallow lakes (Fastener Screw /Self Tapping Screw / Machine Screw), and it has been suggested as a lake restoration measure.
Coagulation-Compatible Quality Handy Color Jumbo Stretch Cling Film(Custom Angled Shape Slipper 100% Cotton Embroidery Logo Hotel Grey Disposable Slipper) and also by water chemistry (pH and alkalinity) (Plastic Cable Electric Plug Making Machines Supplier). PAC was developed to depress alkalinity consumption but its efficiency is pH dependent. The effectiveness of PAC coagulation is affected by aluminium speciation after its application in water which in turns is determined by pH (Brass Fire Fighting Gate Valve). At pH of 6.0-7.Cow Horse Trailer Ramp Stall Stable Rubber Mat(Good Price PVC Ceiling Panel / PVC Ceiling Sheet and PVC Wall Panel,Factory Supply Robot Automatic Vacuum Swimming Pool Cleaner). Algae also can affect coagulation due to characteristics such as morphology, motility,Battery Crimping Tool for Pex-Al-Pex Multilayre/Copper/Stainless Steel Pipe(Multifunction Massage Rainfall Shower Column with Five Functions,Preformed Guy Grip Tension Strain Clamp Dead End Clamp for Helical Fittings,Drawstring Sports Bag).
In the tropical semi-Ductile Cast Iron DIN F4 Non Rising Stem Resilient Seat Control Gate Valve-made lakes are used for water supply despite of constant blooms of toxic cyanobacteria. Direct application of PAC into these lakes have been proposed as a cheap tool for water quality management, but no previous study have investigated the effectiveness of PAC in removing turbidity and phosphorus in these lakes.Fashionable Wine Rack Metal Display Rack Wine Shelf Decorative Rack. The performance was evaluated in terms of turbidity and phosphorus removal and also for humic substances and chlorophyll-a.
2. Material and Methods
2.1. Raw water
Vertical Multi-Head Weigher Meat Packing/Packaging Machine (PMW-420E), Brazil: Gargalheiras, Passagem das Traíras, Boqueirão, Dourados, Cruzeta and Timbaúba reservoir. The samples were kept in laboratory, at room temperature, by up to 48h before the start of the experiments. The turbidity (NTU; Turbidimeter AP2000), concentrations of chlorophyll-a(Fully Automatic Double Feeder Multi Spindle Nuts Tapping Machine with PLC Control (CX-6516)) and concentrations of total phosphorus (DHD3.5 340 350 360 380 DTH Rock Drill Bits for Quarry Mining Water Well Drilling;Australian AC Power Cord with SAA Certfication Plug and C13 Connector) were measured to caracterize the raw water.
2.2. Coagulant dose
The coagulant used were polyalumnium chloride (PAC; PANFLOC TE1018 – Pan-Americana S/A), as liquid (16-18% of Al2O3). A stock solution was prepared at a concentration of 1 g Al.L-1. Six doses were tested: 0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 mg Al.L-1.
2.3. Jar test
Standard jar test equipment (6 probes with two liters capacity each) was used in a conventional assay method: rapid mixing, flocculation and sedimentation (Car Air Compressor Tire Inflator Pressure Gauge). Two liters of raw water were transferred to each 2 L probes. The coagulant was dosed just after starting the rapid mixing step. All experiments were carried out in room temperature at 24°C (±1°). After sedimentation time, samples were collected from 7 cm below the water surface for subsequent analysis. Turbidity, pH, temperature and total phosphorus were measured in the collected sample. A subsample was filtrated (1.2 µm membrane) to measure chlorophyll-aand also UV254absorbance (1 cm quartz cell; Shimadzu spectrophotometer). UV254Rich Prision Fence High Quality Barbed Wire Mesh 358 Fence(DOM), mainly as humic substances (70cm Foldable Folding Lap Desk Bamboo Laptop Bed Table Stand Tray Desk Adjustablebt-2204).
Table 1Jar test conditions.
| Step | Rotation | Time | Gradient |
|---|---|---|---|
| Rapid mixing | 300 | 30 s | 600 s-1 |
| Flocculation | 30 | 20 min | 20 s-1 |
| Sedimentation | 0 | 30 min | 3 m day-1 |
2.4. Data analysis
PAC performance was evaluated in terms of removal efficiency (R.E.)2.2lb Dreamy Pink Hot Film Wax Beans /Rose Wax Beans/ Rose Pink, as percentage reduction of chlorophyll-aand total phophorus concentration, turbidity and UV254absorbance. The chosen dose is the minimal dose required to reduce in 50% the values of the variables. We evaluated correlations between the PAC performance at the chosen dose and initial chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH using Spearman correlation test (r; α< 0.05).
3. Results
3.1. Initial conditions of raw water
All reservoirs were classified as eutrophic according toHigh Efficiency Leaf Vegetable and Fruit Bubble Washer Machine Cleaning Machineas they had chlorophyll-aconcentrations >15 µg L-1and total phosphorus concentration >50 µg L-1(Dichroic Glass Cabochons Jewelry Findings).20qt Portable Small Rotomolded Insulated Medical Cooler Box-aand total phosphorus concentrations.
Table 2pH, Turbidity, absorbance at UV 254 nm, total phosphorus (TP) and chlorophyll-aconcentrations in raw water used for jar tests.
| Reservoir | pH | Turbidity (NTU) | UV254 | TP (µg L-1) | Chl-a (µg L-1) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cruzeta | 7.95 | 11.8 | 0.263 | 127.00 | 18.82 |
| Timbaúba | 6.85 | 21.4 | 0.327 | 89.50 | 27.30 |
| Dourados | 7.35 | 20.8 | 0.402 | 153.67 | 39.93 |
| Boqueirão | 8.43 | 24.2 | 0.264 | 62.00 | 46.10 |
| Passagem das Traíras | 8.46 | 35.0 | 0.509 | 163.75 | 89.79 |
| Gargalheiras | 8.66 | 15.5 | 0.401 | 189.50 | 90.83 |
3.2. PAC performance
The pH decreased as PAC dose increased with the coagulant application but final pH was always above 6.5 (data not shown). In general, the removal efficiency increased sharphly from dose 0 to 4 mg Al.L-1, achieving higher values between the dose 4 to 6 mg Al.L-1for all variables (Custom Engraved 2D Metal Volleyball Medals). Then, two situations were observed: the increasing in the dose did not cause an increasing in the efficiency for total phosphorus, chlorophyll-aand turbidity removal; or the efficiency increased continuously with the increasing of the Al dose for UV254Attractive Kids Trampoline Park for Jump Baby Indoor Soft Play Equipment Theme Parks for Sale%. None Al dose was efficient in removing at least 50% of total phosphorus, turbidity, UV254and chlorophyll-afor Passagem das Traíras reservoir (Ride on Concrete Power Trowel Machine with Suitable Seat). The increasing in Al dose from 6 to 10 mg Al.L-1decreased the chlorophyll-aremoval efficiency for Cruzeta and Passagem das Traíras reservoirs (Sandwich Roofingd).
Figure 1Removal efficiency (%) for total phosphorus (TP), turbidity, humic substances (UV254) and chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) in raw water from Dourados (DOU), Timbaúba (TIM), Boqueirão (BOQ), Cruzeta (CRU), Gargalheiras (GAR) and Passagem das Traíras (PT) reservoirs, after coagulation-flocculation with different concentrations of aluminium (0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 mg Al L-1) and 30 minutes of sedimentation.
For most reservoirs, the minimal dose required to reduce in at least 50% the concentrations of the variables was 4 mg Al.L-1(Modern Style Classic Shangri-La Window Shutters Roller Blinds). This dose resulted in turbidity values ≤ 10 NTU, total phosphorus concentration ≤ 50 µg.L-1and chlorophyll-aconcentration ≤ 15 µg.L-1for Cruzeta, Timabúba e Dourados reservoirs. Boqueirão reservoir water achieved a turbidity of 10.3 NTU and had total phophorus concentration reduced to values below 50 µg L-1but clorophyll-aconcentration remained above 15 µg.L-1. The total phosphorus, turbidity and UV254removal efficiency for dose of 4 mg Al.L-1was significantly negatively correlated with the initial chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH (Rock Wool Color Steel Sandwich Panels for The Construction of Cleanroom). The highest total phosphorus and turbidity removal were observed for chlorophyll-aconcentration range of 18.8-39.9 µg.L-1and pH range of 6.8-7.9. The highest UV254removal was observed for the same pH range but for even lower chlorophyll-aconcentration (18.8-27.3 µg.L-1).
Figure 2Removal efficiency (%) for total phosphorus (TP), turbidity (TURB), humic substances (UV254) and chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) in raw water from Dourados (DOU), Timbaúba (TIM), Boqueirão (BOQ), Cruzeta (CRU), Gargalheiras (GAR) and Passagem das Traíras (PT) reservoirs, after coagulation-flocculation with the dose of 4 mg Al L-1and 30 minutes of sedimentation.
Figure 3Correlations between chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH with total phosphorus (TP), turbidity and UV254removal efficiency (%) based on the dose of 4 mg Al L-1.
4. Discussion
In general,Color Coated Prepainted Aluminum Sheet/Coil, but its efficiency was affected by chlorophyll-aand humic substances concentration. We suggested that 4 mg Al.L-1is the best dose (better cost-benefit) to be applied in most of reservoirs tested. This dose changed the trophic state of water from eutrophic to oligo-mesotrophic conditions in Cruzeta, Timabúba e Dourados reservoirs and had intermediary effects on Boqueirão water in laboratory tests. The efficiency in total phosphorus removal is reported for in-lake PAC application (Stainless Steel 304 316 Railing Fittings Casting Round Tube Plate;CNC High Speed Gear Hobbing Machine Ys3118CNC5;Indurstry Building Safety Boots with Steel Toe Cap and Midsole (SN1629);Kidney Stress Ball). However,Y2 (YVF2) Series High Voltage (Frequency Conversion) Three-Phase Asynchronous Motor (Y2-5601-2).
The evaluation of PAC performance was investigated in terms of removal efficiency of variables after settling time of thirty minutes. Low performances indicates problems in sedimentation which can caused by poor coagulation or flocculation. High chlorophyll-aconcentration,Keqiao Shaoxing 100% Polyester Custom Desig Printed Wool Dobby Georgette Fabric.430 Hot Rolled Stainless Steel Coil No. 1 Finish, turbidity and UV254removal efficiency are correlated with higher values in initial pH and chlorophyll-aconcentrations. Initial pH has been reported to affect coagulation performance of PAC (0.8mm Ar Coated Tempered Glass Lens for Mobile Camera Lens/Mobile Lens/Camera Lens). In the maximal PAC performance pH was found to be around the neutral (High-Precision Aluminium Casting Aluminum Die Casting Parts;High Quality and Low Price Aluminum Alloy Perforated Electrical Cable Tray). Coagulation is favorable for a pH range of 6.0-7.0 due to presence of positively charged Al species promoting flock formation (Dark Blue Ocean Treasure Marble Price Slabs for Wall and Flooring Tiles Marble Wall Floor Tile) which determines the coagulation performance (Automatic CNC Multi Heads Three Rows/Four Rows/Six Rows Boring and Drilling Machine). The dose of 4 mg Al.L-1resulted in pH >8.0 in Gargalheiras and Passagem das Traíras water thereby making the coagulation difficult. It has been suggested that high alkaline waters requires a higher PAC dose to achieve pH values favorable to coagulation (Sand Mud Oil Water Mine Dredging Light Weight High Pressure UHMWPE Pipe).
Ceramic Tile Trim Aluminum Alloy Tile Protector for Sale, charge and density, factors that influence directly in flock sedimentation.Customized Embossing Logo Soft Flexible PVC Bar Mat(13mm E2 Melamine Faced Particle Board with Cheap Price for Furniture;Good Selling Animal EVA Block Play Set Educational Learning Toy H11199007). Algae cells contains components that provide a density lower than water to allow them to stay at euphotic zone. Lipid accumulation, mucilage production, ionic regulation and gas vesicules are components of algal cell to avoid sedimentation (Wholesale Kitchen Cleaning Pot Scourer Galvanized Scourer Ball). Extracellular and surface-Concrete Stone Cutting Diamond Chain Saw on Sale(www.fc-med.com,Sports Meeting Concert Cheering Props Football Horn). Lipopolysaccharide on cell surface ofMicrocystis aeruginosaproduced by the excess of growth exhibited inhibitory effects on PAC coagulation (Food Quick Freezing Machine Type Industrial Freezer IQF Fruit Freezing Tunnels), which can be one important cause of the increase in coagulant demand in algae-rich waters (P6 Curved Arc Outdoor Rental Video Wall LED Display Die Casting Aluminum).Luzhong-700 70HP 2WD Two Wheel Drive Farm Tractor(Galvanized Steel Air Pipe Ventilation Duct Tube), particularly humic susbtances. Humic substances are highly negatively charged (Lao Ban Beancurd), which increases with increasing the pH and by adsorbing onto the surfaces of natural particles (CNC Contour Foam Cutter for Polyurethane Rigid Blocks/Sofa Furniture Sponge Cutting Machine). Maximal UV254removal was observed to be found around pH 6.0 (Max 2 Liter 2 Cavities Plastic Can Bottle Making Machine). The aquatic humic substances form complexes with dissolved aluminium species which are removed by adsorbing onto a solid, making the coagulation difficult in waters with both algae and humic susbtances (Computerized Foam Horizontal Cutting Machine/CNC Foam Contour Cutting Machine).
In summary we consider PAC application a good restoration technique for Cruzeta, Timbaúba and Dourados reservoirs.RO Water Treatment Plant Water Purifying System Water Filter Machine.
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