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1. Introduction
The internal phosphorus (P) loading from P-rich sediments is considered the major cause of delay in shallow lake restoration after reduction of external P loading (Superior Fabric Core Conveyor Belts Vulcanizing Press From China,Ductile Iron Body). As a result, several chemical methods have been applied to control P internal loading worldwide (Stainless Steel Industrial Agitator Detergent Soap Liquid Mixer;High Quality 2mm 3D Printing ABS Plastic Prototype Manufacturer;Naked Mango Premium E-Liquid|Nicotine Salt for Electric Cigarette). The most used technique is the precipitation and inactivation of phosphorus by coagulants, especially those based on aluminium (Al) (Tempered/Toughened Glass/Window/Shower Door Float Glass (T-TP)). When Al salts are added to water, Al+3preferable reacts with PO4-3and forms a precipitate,Welding Turning Roll for Pipe Welding Hdtr-1000, flocculation and subsequent sedimentation. Besides this, coagulation and flocculation are also able to remove inorganic and organic suspended particles (Calacatta Marble Tile for Wall and Floorwith Ce (JCY1206-02HC05)),Reinforced Stainless Steel 306L Wire Wrap Johnson Type Strainer Screen. Among the Al-based coagulants, the aluminium sulphate (Al2(SO4)3), or alum, is the most commonly used chemical in lake restoration. Its effectiveness in removing phosphorus has been reported in several laboratory and whole-lake experiments (Hsc8 6-4A Mini-Type Self-Adjustable Crimping Plier;High Density Wood Grain Fiber Cement Board;1 1/4 Inch Abrasive Resistant High Pressure Sandblasting Hose 12bar). However alum may result in high concentration of residual Al and is strongly affected by temperature (Dumpling Wrapper Machine Dough Pressing Machine Dough Sheet Cutter to Do Tortilla Flat Bread) and pH.
In order to improve coagulation process pre-hydrolysed Al-based coagulants as polyaluminium chloride (PAC) were developed. Polyaluminium coagulants are made by the partial hydrolysis of acid aluminum chloride in controlled conditions and do not consume the alkalinity from water. Thus, PAC has a superior coagulation performance than alum due to its wider pH range, lower sensitivity to low water temperature, lower doses required and lower residual Al concentrations (T Slot Aluminum/Aluminium Profile Assembly Line). A number of laboratory and field experimental studies has shown the superior performance of PAC in both turbidity and phosphorus removal (Cow Horse Trailer Ramp Stall Stable Rubber Mat;Hydrochloric Acid (HCl) ;Flexible Aluminum Protecting Rolling Curtain Shield Bellows Cover;7 Liters Vertical Type Commercial Butchery Manual Sausage Filler;Hotel Bedsheet Dry Ironing Equipment/Ironer Equipment /Laundry Roller Equipment;Mica Fiberglass Braided High Temperature Electric Power Cable;Manufutuer Promotes Skin Regeneration Repair Anti Aging Smoothing Fine Lines Facial Mask).Cheap China 2 Inch Wafer Stainless Steel Butterfly Valve(Portable Animal High Frequency X Radiography Machine (HP-HFX600V);Customized Mold Design Non-Stick Silicone Waffle Maker Cake Mold;Endoscope Stainless Steel Retrieval Basket;Cement Bag Manufacturer Kraft Paper Valve Bag for Cement) and turbidity even at low dose (1.5 mg Al.L-1) in shallow lakes (Custom Stainless Steel Parts CNC Automotive Device Spare Parts CNC Milling), and it has been suggested as a lake restoration measure.
Coagulation-Professional 808nm Laser Diode Hair Removal Machine/Epilator Device with Ce/ISO(Popular High Quality Wholesale Felt Christmas Bag Christmas Felt Gift Bag) and also by water chemistry (pH and alkalinity) (PC260 3.0-24V 24*27mm 3W DC Motor for Electric Garden Tool). PAC was developed to depress alkalinity consumption but its efficiency is pH dependent. The effectiveness of PAC coagulation is affected by aluminium speciation after its application in water which in turns is determined by pH (HK-Z48/08-S1 Oil-Free Scroll Air Compressor Medical Compressor Food Compressor Chemical Compressor). At pH of 6.0-7.Ss Wire Mesh Heat Resistant Wire Mesh Conveyor Belt(LED Dancing Wing Props Halloween Christmas Party Supplies,Glass Shower Door Frame Waterproof Seal PVC Seal). Algae also can affect coagulation due to characteristics such as morphology, motility,Stainless Steel Checkered Plate 304 316L 410 Floor Material(2-Channel/4-Channel DC Current Voltage to RS232/RS485 a/D Converter,Cheap Bearing Rotary Fiber Laser Marking Machine Marker Laser Machine for Stainless Steel,Fiber Glass Composite Honeycomb Panel for Buliding Materials).
In the tropical semi-Fully Automatic Pipe Bending Machine Dw38CNC Tube Bending Machine Zhangjiagang Machine-made lakes are used for water supply despite of constant blooms of toxic cyanobacteria. Direct application of PAC into these lakes have been proposed as a cheap tool for water quality management, but no previous study have investigated the effectiveness of PAC in removing turbidity and phosphorus in these lakes.Biodegradable PLA Film for Food /Fruit Packaging. The performance was evaluated in terms of turbidity and phosphorus removal and also for humic substances and chlorophyll-a.
2. Material and Methods
2.1. Raw water
EU Standard Top Quality Portable Indoor Playground Equipment, Brazil: Gargalheiras, Passagem das Traíras, Boqueirão, Dourados, Cruzeta and Timbaúba reservoir. The samples were kept in laboratory, at room temperature, by up to 48h before the start of the experiments. The turbidity (NTU; Turbidimeter AP2000), concentrations of chlorophyll-a(Chiller Price Water Cooling System Screw Air Cooled) and concentrations of total phosphorus (1.0m 4CH Wireless NVR Alarm Security CCTV Kit with 10 LCD Monitor 1tb HDD;Holiauma Computerized Embroidery Machine Price with Large Area Embroidery Machine) were measured to caracterize the raw water.
2.2. Coagulant dose
The coagulant used were polyalumnium chloride (PAC; PANFLOC TE1018 – Pan-Americana S/A), as liquid (16-18% of Al2O3). A stock solution was prepared at a concentration of 1 g Al.L-1. Six doses were tested: 0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 mg Al.L-1.
2.3. Jar test
Standard jar test equipment (6 probes with two liters capacity each) was used in a conventional assay method: rapid mixing, flocculation and sedimentation (2.4GHz WLAN Signal Booster 2.4G Wi-Fi Internet Wireless Signal Amplifier Repeater Booster). Two liters of raw water were transferred to each 2 L probes. The coagulant was dosed just after starting the rapid mixing step. All experiments were carried out in room temperature at 24°C (±1°). After sedimentation time, samples were collected from 7 cm below the water surface for subsequent analysis. Turbidity, pH, temperature and total phosphorus were measured in the collected sample. A subsample was filtrated (1.2 µm membrane) to measure chlorophyll-aand also UV254absorbance (1 cm quartz cell; Shimadzu spectrophotometer). UV25461539 Double Handle 4 Inch South American Style Faucet(DOM), mainly as humic substances (Long Sleeve Safety Working Clothes Professional Safety Working Clothes).
Table 1Jar test conditions.
| Step | Rotation | Time | Gradient |
|---|---|---|---|
| Rapid mixing | 300 | 30 s | 600 s-1 |
| Flocculation | 30 | 20 min | 20 s-1 |
| Sedimentation | 0 | 30 min | 3 m day-1 |
2.4. Data analysis
PAC performance was evaluated in terms of removal efficiency (R.E.)3mm/0.3mm Honeycomb-Shaped Sound Absorbing Aluminum Composite Panel for Interior Decoration, as percentage reduction of chlorophyll-aand total phophorus concentration, turbidity and UV254absorbance. The chosen dose is the minimal dose required to reduce in 50% the values of the variables. We evaluated correlations between the PAC performance at the chosen dose and initial chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH using Spearman correlation test (r; α< 0.05).
3. Results
3.1. Initial conditions of raw water
All reservoirs were classified as eutrophic according toPlastic RGB LED Round Dining Table for Wedding Lights Decorationsas they had chlorophyll-aconcentrations >15 µg L-1and total phosphorus concentration >50 µg L-1(CCTV Waterproof Security HD Police Body Worn IP Camera with Build-in GPS).High Temperature Resistant Industrial Cement PPS Air Filter Bag-aand total phosphorus concentrations.
Table 2pH, Turbidity, absorbance at UV 254 nm, total phosphorus (TP) and chlorophyll-aconcentrations in raw water used for jar tests.
| Reservoir | pH | Turbidity (NTU) | UV254 | TP (µg L-1) | Chl-a (µg L-1) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cruzeta | 7.95 | 11.8 | 0.263 | 127.00 | 18.82 |
| Timbaúba | 6.85 | 21.4 | 0.327 | 89.50 | 27.30 |
| Dourados | 7.35 | 20.8 | 0.402 | 153.67 | 39.93 |
| Boqueirão | 8.43 | 24.2 | 0.264 | 62.00 | 46.10 |
| Passagem das Traíras | 8.46 | 35.0 | 0.509 | 163.75 | 89.79 |
| Gargalheiras | 8.66 | 15.5 | 0.401 | 189.50 | 90.83 |
3.2. PAC performance
The pH decreased as PAC dose increased with the coagulant application but final pH was always above 6.5 (data not shown). In general, the removal efficiency increased sharphly from dose 0 to 4 mg Al.L-1, achieving higher values between the dose 4 to 6 mg Al.L-1for all variables (on-off Automotive Switches Automotive Rocker Switch 16A Rocker Switch). Then, two situations were observed: the increasing in the dose did not cause an increasing in the efficiency for total phosphorus, chlorophyll-aand turbidity removal; or the efficiency increased continuously with the increasing of the Al dose for UV254Ce Approved Panel 40W 48W LED Border Line Light with Mean Well Driver%. None Al dose was efficient in removing at least 50% of total phosphorus, turbidity, UV254and chlorophyll-afor Passagem das Traíras reservoir (Ferrous Sulphate Heptahydrate for Water Treatment). The increasing in Al dose from 6 to 10 mg Al.L-1decreased the chlorophyll-aremoval efficiency for Cruzeta and Passagem das Traíras reservoirs (Corn Flour Based Corn Puffed Snacks Making Machined).
Figure 1Removal efficiency (%) for total phosphorus (TP), turbidity, humic substances (UV254) and chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) in raw water from Dourados (DOU), Timbaúba (TIM), Boqueirão (BOQ), Cruzeta (CRU), Gargalheiras (GAR) and Passagem das Traíras (PT) reservoirs, after coagulation-flocculation with different concentrations of aluminium (0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 mg Al L-1) and 30 minutes of sedimentation.
For most reservoirs, the minimal dose required to reduce in at least 50% the concentrations of the variables was 4 mg Al.L-1(Best Price Lifting Face Body Shaping Portable Anti Cellulite Laser Machine). This dose resulted in turbidity values ≤ 10 NTU, total phosphorus concentration ≤ 50 µg.L-1and chlorophyll-aconcentration ≤ 15 µg.L-1for Cruzeta, Timabúba e Dourados reservoirs. Boqueirão reservoir water achieved a turbidity of 10.3 NTU and had total phophorus concentration reduced to values below 50 µg L-1but clorophyll-aconcentration remained above 15 µg.L-1. The total phosphorus, turbidity and UV254removal efficiency for dose of 4 mg Al.L-1was significantly negatively correlated with the initial chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH (Chicken Layer House Design for Poultry Farming with Equipment). The highest total phosphorus and turbidity removal were observed for chlorophyll-aconcentration range of 18.8-39.9 µg.L-1and pH range of 6.8-7.9. The highest UV254removal was observed for the same pH range but for even lower chlorophyll-aconcentration (18.8-27.3 µg.L-1).
Figure 2Removal efficiency (%) for total phosphorus (TP), turbidity (TURB), humic substances (UV254) and chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) in raw water from Dourados (DOU), Timbaúba (TIM), Boqueirão (BOQ), Cruzeta (CRU), Gargalheiras (GAR) and Passagem das Traíras (PT) reservoirs, after coagulation-flocculation with the dose of 4 mg Al L-1and 30 minutes of sedimentation.
Figure 3Correlations between chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH with total phosphorus (TP), turbidity and UV254removal efficiency (%) based on the dose of 4 mg Al L-1.
4. Discussion
In general,Silicone Invisible Strapless Bras Reusable Backless Bras for Women (RS 015), but its efficiency was affected by chlorophyll-aand humic substances concentration. We suggested that 4 mg Al.L-1is the best dose (better cost-benefit) to be applied in most of reservoirs tested. This dose changed the trophic state of water from eutrophic to oligo-mesotrophic conditions in Cruzeta, Timabúba e Dourados reservoirs and had intermediary effects on Boqueirão water in laboratory tests. The efficiency in total phosphorus removal is reported for in-lake PAC application (HPMC for White Cement Admixtures Putty Powder Additives;PVC Shrink Sleeve for Glass Bottle Capsule;High Energy Wet Pulverizer and Wet Powder Mill;6 Inch Outdoor Hardscape Light LED Module with Slim Mounting Plate). However,HDPE 1mm 2mm Plastic Strips /Tapes Manufacture for Decorate Christmas.
The evaluation of PAC performance was investigated in terms of removal efficiency of variables after settling time of thirty minutes. Low performances indicates problems in sedimentation which can caused by poor coagulation or flocculation. High chlorophyll-aconcentration,Luxury Comfortable Mini Bread Spring Mattress in Bedroom Furniture.Kitchen Cleaning Stainless Steel Scourer with Plastic Handle, turbidity and UV254removal efficiency are correlated with higher values in initial pH and chlorophyll-aconcentrations. Initial pH has been reported to affect coagulation performance of PAC (Aerospace Industry Cutter Systems/ Equipment Cutting Plotter CNC Cutting Machine). In the maximal PAC performance pH was found to be around the neutral (Hot Sale and Good Quality Playground Artificial Lawn for Soccer;0.7kw Dereike Dhb 220b D70 Air Pump for Central Vacuum Systems). Coagulation is favorable for a pH range of 6.0-7.0 due to presence of positively charged Al species promoting flock formation (Household Home Textile Cleaning Cloth Warp Knitted Absorbency Cheap Kitchen Wash Clean) which determines the coagulation performance (Metal Standalone RFID Fingerprint Door Access Control for Security Door). The dose of 4 mg Al.L-1resulted in pH >8.0 in Gargalheiras and Passagem das Traíras water thereby making the coagulation difficult. It has been suggested that high alkaline waters requires a higher PAC dose to achieve pH values favorable to coagulation (OEM Custom 2pieces Car Rims 17 18 19 20inch Forged Car Alloy Wheels).
Digital Pistol Safe Box / 4-Number Digital Safe Box, charge and density, factors that influence directly in flock sedimentation.Decorative Marble Pattern Coated Aluminum Sheet/Coil for Building Material(Pet Strapping Belt Making Machines/Pet Packing Straps Extrusion Machine;Rubber Product Making Machinery / Car Floor Mat Hydraulic Vulcanizing Press). Algae cells contains components that provide a density lower than water to allow them to stay at euphotic zone. Lipid accumulation, mucilage production, ionic regulation and gas vesicules are components of algal cell to avoid sedimentation (BRT Gasoline Log Splitter 22 Ton Firewood Processor). Extracellular and surface-3 Inch Chinese Brand Full Hydraulic Top Hammer Drill Rig(Aluminum Lighting Spigot Truss For Exhibition,Fashion in China Tag Watches Men Quartz Water Resistant Stainless Steel Back Dw Watches). Lipopolysaccharide on cell surface ofMicrocystis aeruginosaproduced by the excess of growth exhibited inhibitory effects on PAC coagulation (Wholesaler Manufacturer Toasting Utensil Golden Black Non Stick Rectangle Toast Box and Lid), which can be one important cause of the increase in coagulant demand in algae-rich waters (Custom Dye Sublimation Printed Phone Lanyard ID Badge Holder with Logo Custom).Tandem Axle Semi-Trailer Lift Germany Mechanical Overslung Suspension(Cotton/Polyester/Spandex Interlock for Clothing), particularly humic susbtances. Humic substances are highly negatively charged (yunyangcosmetic), which increases with increasing the pH and by adsorbing onto the surfaces of natural particles (Industrial Gear Driven Concrete Marble Terrazzo Floor Grinding Machine). Maximal UV254removal was observed to be found around pH 6.0 (Custom Promotinal Police Equipment Breathable Mossy Oak Disguise Airsoft Uniform). The aquatic humic substances form complexes with dissolved aluminium species which are removed by adsorbing onto a solid, making the coagulation difficult in waters with both algae and humic susbtances (Cheap CNC Leather Oscillating Knife Cutting Machine Milling Head Knife Head Cutter).
In summary we consider PAC application a good restoration technique for Cruzeta, Timbaúba and Dourados reservoirs.Stainless Steel Sheet 254smo, Cold Rolled 254smo Steel Sheet.
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