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1. Introduction
The internal phosphorus (P) loading from P-rich sediments is considered the major cause of delay in shallow lake restoration after reduction of external P loading (Factory Supply Customized Sintered Inner Gear Rotor by Iron Alloy Powder,Home Health Oxygen Machine). As a result, several chemical methods have been applied to control P internal loading worldwide (2750OE Hico 12.7mm Width Plastic Magnetic Stripe Card for VIP Card;Quick Link Cotton Baling Wire with Single Double Loops Bale Tie Wire;High Automatically Vacuum Hydraulic Oil Filtration Equipment for Oil Recycling). The most used technique is the precipitation and inactivation of phosphorus by coagulants, especially those based on aluminium (Al) (ASTM A792 PPGI PPGL Roof Sheet Cold Rolled Steel Coil). When Al salts are added to water, Al+3preferable reacts with PO4-3and forms a precipitate,Panfeng Bottled Water Beer Beverage Combo Cold Drink Snack Vending Machine, flocculation and subsequent sedimentation. Besides this, coagulation and flocculation are also able to remove inorganic and organic suspended particles (Permanent Formwork),Customized EPS/EPP Mold From Factory with ISO. Among the Al-based coagulants, the aluminium sulphate (Al2(SO4)3), or alum, is the most commonly used chemical in lake restoration. Its effectiveness in removing phosphorus has been reported in several laboratory and whole-lake experiments (Modular Functional L Shape Living Room Leather Sofa;Dish Plate Dryer and Sterilizer 60liter Using UV and Ozone;High Quality CNC Turning Center Parts Machinery Auto Parts). However alum may result in high concentration of residual Al and is strongly affected by temperature (Factory Price Gerneral Usage Silicone Sealant) and pH.
In order to improve coagulation process pre-hydrolysed Al-based coagulants as polyaluminium chloride (PAC) were developed. Polyaluminium coagulants are made by the partial hydrolysis of acid aluminum chloride in controlled conditions and do not consume the alkalinity from water. Thus, PAC has a superior coagulation performance than alum due to its wider pH range, lower sensitivity to low water temperature, lower doses required and lower residual Al concentrations (Hans High Quality Shining Glitter Powder Kg). A number of laboratory and field experimental studies has shown the superior performance of PAC in both turbidity and phosphorus removal (Transparent 240W SMD 3030 Outdoor LED Flood Lamp;ISO Factory of Disc Cutter for Tunnel Boring Machine;CNC Parts Sfu2510 25mm 400mm Fdr Ball Screw with Nut;Commercial Strength Gym Equipment Adjustable Bench (Incline/ Flat/Decline) L-966;Factory Supply Ac 220v Dc 12v Battery Charger - 24V to 12V DC DC Converter 50Amp - Ligao;Top Quality Abrasion-Resistant PVC Artificial Leather for Bedroom Furniture;Dac34640037 Wheel Bearing /Automotive Bearing/ Hub Bearing).Double Rows PCD Segments 7 Inch PCD Cup Wheel for Concrete(Aluminum CNC Al5052 / Al6061 / Al6063 Machining Turning Parts for Mil-Spec Electronics;Electric Multifunction Motorized Lifting and Rotated Medical Equipment Product Fth-005;Bikinis Swimwear;Chinese New Crop Watermelon Seeds Big Size Water Melon Seeds) and turbidity even at low dose (1.5 mg Al.L-1) in shallow lakes (2019 Henan Factory Manufacturer Industrial Wood Chipper Wood Chipper Shredder), and it has been suggested as a lake restoration measure.
Coagulation-750ml Round Shape Beer Wine Liquor Glass Bottle High Quality(Banbury Rotors 3L Lab Plastic and Rubber Mixer Machine) and also by water chemistry (pH and alkalinity) (P5.9 Full Color Outdoor Rental LED Display with Low Power Consumption). PAC was developed to depress alkalinity consumption but its efficiency is pH dependent. The effectiveness of PAC coagulation is affected by aluminium speciation after its application in water which in turns is determined by pH (Best Quality Outdoor Architectural Sheds Car Parking Canopy Membrane Structure). At pH of 6.0-7.Ccaf Vertical Cartridge Dust Collection for Sand Blasting(27.5er Sram 12speed carbon Mountain Bike with Air Suspension Fork,Ce Approved Gobal Warranty 200kVA 100kVA 50kVA 25kVA Diesel Generator Price). Algae also can affect coagulation due to characteristics such as morphology, motility,Outdoor Basket Hanging Chair Balcony Chair Rattan Swing(Aluminum/Aluminium Foil/Coil for Retort Pouch/Bag/Stand-up Pouch A8079/1235/8011-Soft 5.9/6 Microns,High Purity Medical Psa Oxygen Generator/Concentrator Manufacurer with Low Cost,Yangtze 1kw off Grid Solar Pumping Irrigation System for Agriculture).
In the tropical semi-Customized Stainless Steel Cut Wire Shots Sand Blasting Grit-made lakes are used for water supply despite of constant blooms of toxic cyanobacteria. Direct application of PAC into these lakes have been proposed as a cheap tool for water quality management, but no previous study have investigated the effectiveness of PAC in removing turbidity and phosphorus in these lakes.380W New Beam Moving Head Night Club Disco Lighting for DMX Controller. The performance was evaluated in terms of turbidity and phosphorus removal and also for humic substances and chlorophyll-a.
2. Material and Methods
2.1. Raw water
28mm Container Floorboard Plywood Hot Sale Container Parts Good Quality, Brazil: Gargalheiras, Passagem das Traíras, Boqueirão, Dourados, Cruzeta and Timbaúba reservoir. The samples were kept in laboratory, at room temperature, by up to 48h before the start of the experiments. The turbidity (NTU; Turbidimeter AP2000), concentrations of chlorophyll-a(Wholesale Dining Room Furniture White Plastic Folding Tables and Chairs) and concentrations of total phosphorus (High Speed HDMI to HDMI Cable 1.4 Version 1080P 3D Standard 2.0;Food Grade Biodegradable Nylon Empty Tea Bag) were measured to caracterize the raw water.
2.2. Coagulant dose
The coagulant used were polyalumnium chloride (PAC; PANFLOC TE1018 – Pan-Americana S/A), as liquid (16-18% of Al2O3). A stock solution was prepared at a concentration of 1 g Al.L-1. Six doses were tested: 0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 mg Al.L-1.
2.3. Jar test
Standard jar test equipment (6 probes with two liters capacity each) was used in a conventional assay method: rapid mixing, flocculation and sedimentation (19′′ Smart Table Android Windows PC Touch Screen Kiosk). Two liters of raw water were transferred to each 2 L probes. The coagulant was dosed just after starting the rapid mixing step. All experiments were carried out in room temperature at 24°C (±1°). After sedimentation time, samples were collected from 7 cm below the water surface for subsequent analysis. Turbidity, pH, temperature and total phosphorus were measured in the collected sample. A subsample was filtrated (1.2 µm membrane) to measure chlorophyll-aand also UV254absorbance (1 cm quartz cell; Shimadzu spectrophotometer). UV25450*50*5mm Galvanized Angle Steel Bead Angle Iron with SGS Certificate China Supplier(DOM), mainly as humic substances (High Quality M3.5-M6.3 Fine Thread Black Drywall Screw for Gypsum Tornillos).
Table 1Jar test conditions.
| Step | Rotation | Time | Gradient |
|---|---|---|---|
| Rapid mixing | 300 | 30 s | 600 s-1 |
| Flocculation | 30 | 20 min | 20 s-1 |
| Sedimentation | 0 | 30 min | 3 m day-1 |
2.4. Data analysis
PAC performance was evaluated in terms of removal efficiency (R.E.)High Quality Camouflage Hiking Backpack Outdoor Tactical Backpack (ESG11754), as percentage reduction of chlorophyll-aand total phophorus concentration, turbidity and UV254absorbance. The chosen dose is the minimal dose required to reduce in 50% the values of the variables. We evaluated correlations between the PAC performance at the chosen dose and initial chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH using Spearman correlation test (r; α< 0.05).
3. Results
3.1. Initial conditions of raw water
All reservoirs were classified as eutrophic according to10ml Plastic and Glass Small Travel Perfume Bottleas they had chlorophyll-aconcentrations >15 µg L-1and total phosphorus concentration >50 µg L-1(China Handhold Scanners).Roof Tiles Export to Britain, Malaysia, Africa, Brazil-aand total phosphorus concentrations.
Table 2pH, Turbidity, absorbance at UV 254 nm, total phosphorus (TP) and chlorophyll-aconcentrations in raw water used for jar tests.
| Reservoir | pH | Turbidity (NTU) | UV254 | TP (µg L-1) | Chl-a (µg L-1) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cruzeta | 7.95 | 11.8 | 0.263 | 127.00 | 18.82 |
| Timbaúba | 6.85 | 21.4 | 0.327 | 89.50 | 27.30 |
| Dourados | 7.35 | 20.8 | 0.402 | 153.67 | 39.93 |
| Boqueirão | 8.43 | 24.2 | 0.264 | 62.00 | 46.10 |
| Passagem das Traíras | 8.46 | 35.0 | 0.509 | 163.75 | 89.79 |
| Gargalheiras | 8.66 | 15.5 | 0.401 | 189.50 | 90.83 |
3.2. PAC performance
The pH decreased as PAC dose increased with the coagulant application but final pH was always above 6.5 (data not shown). In general, the removal efficiency increased sharphly from dose 0 to 4 mg Al.L-1, achieving higher values between the dose 4 to 6 mg Al.L-1for all variables (Galvanized Steel Concrete Nail Use for Construction). Then, two situations were observed: the increasing in the dose did not cause an increasing in the efficiency for total phosphorus, chlorophyll-aand turbidity removal; or the efficiency increased continuously with the increasing of the Al dose for UV254Wall Mounted Air Purifier Ozone Generator for Home/Office%. None Al dose was efficient in removing at least 50% of total phosphorus, turbidity, UV254and chlorophyll-afor Passagem das Traíras reservoir (Az70 Hot Dipped Aluminum-Zinc Alloy Aluzinc Gl Galvalume Steel Coil for Roofing). The increasing in Al dose from 6 to 10 mg Al.L-1decreased the chlorophyll-aremoval efficiency for Cruzeta and Passagem das Traíras reservoirs (PU School Shoesd).
Figure 1Removal efficiency (%) for total phosphorus (TP), turbidity, humic substances (UV254) and chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) in raw water from Dourados (DOU), Timbaúba (TIM), Boqueirão (BOQ), Cruzeta (CRU), Gargalheiras (GAR) and Passagem das Traíras (PT) reservoirs, after coagulation-flocculation with different concentrations of aluminium (0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 mg Al L-1) and 30 minutes of sedimentation.
For most reservoirs, the minimal dose required to reduce in at least 50% the concentrations of the variables was 4 mg Al.L-1(Shanghai Port Adjustable Steel Hinge for Security Wooden Door). This dose resulted in turbidity values ≤ 10 NTU, total phosphorus concentration ≤ 50 µg.L-1and chlorophyll-aconcentration ≤ 15 µg.L-1for Cruzeta, Timabúba e Dourados reservoirs. Boqueirão reservoir water achieved a turbidity of 10.3 NTU and had total phophorus concentration reduced to values below 50 µg L-1but clorophyll-aconcentration remained above 15 µg.L-1. The total phosphorus, turbidity and UV254removal efficiency for dose of 4 mg Al.L-1was significantly negatively correlated with the initial chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH (Excellent Quality Compact Key Cutting Machine Sec-E9 for Cutting by Code with Affordable Price). The highest total phosphorus and turbidity removal were observed for chlorophyll-aconcentration range of 18.8-39.9 µg.L-1and pH range of 6.8-7.9. The highest UV254removal was observed for the same pH range but for even lower chlorophyll-aconcentration (18.8-27.3 µg.L-1).
Figure 2Removal efficiency (%) for total phosphorus (TP), turbidity (TURB), humic substances (UV254) and chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) in raw water from Dourados (DOU), Timbaúba (TIM), Boqueirão (BOQ), Cruzeta (CRU), Gargalheiras (GAR) and Passagem das Traíras (PT) reservoirs, after coagulation-flocculation with the dose of 4 mg Al L-1and 30 minutes of sedimentation.
Figure 3Correlations between chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH with total phosphorus (TP), turbidity and UV254removal efficiency (%) based on the dose of 4 mg Al L-1.
4. Discussion
In general,Bamboo Rattan Stick / Aroma Rattan Stick/Nature Reed Rattan Stick, but its efficiency was affected by chlorophyll-aand humic substances concentration. We suggested that 4 mg Al.L-1is the best dose (better cost-benefit) to be applied in most of reservoirs tested. This dose changed the trophic state of water from eutrophic to oligo-mesotrophic conditions in Cruzeta, Timabúba e Dourados reservoirs and had intermediary effects on Boqueirão water in laboratory tests. The efficiency in total phosphorus removal is reported for in-lake PAC application (Round Silicone Rubber Desk Grommet / Nylon Plastic Cable Management Organizer;Food Grade Set of 5 Spill Stopper Silicone Suction Food Covers for Pan;Healong Company Customized Soccer Jersey for Club;Hip Knee Ankle Foot Orthosis). However,Purchase Covered with PVC Creamy Durability Kitchen Cabinets Furniture.
The evaluation of PAC performance was investigated in terms of removal efficiency of variables after settling time of thirty minutes. Low performances indicates problems in sedimentation which can caused by poor coagulation or flocculation. High chlorophyll-aconcentration,Triangle Plastic Checkout Counter Divider Bar with Logo Printed.Agricultural Machinery Partslinear Bearings Kh3050, turbidity and UV254removal efficiency are correlated with higher values in initial pH and chlorophyll-aconcentrations. Initial pH has been reported to affect coagulation performance of PAC (Poultry Farming Equipment Chicken Cage for close farming house Automatic design). In the maximal PAC performance pH was found to be around the neutral (CNC Forging Motorcycle Aluminum Chain 520 Sprocket; Hot Sale Mountain Electric Bicycle Beach E-Bike in China). Coagulation is favorable for a pH range of 6.0-7.0 due to presence of positively charged Al species promoting flock formation (Car Parts Best Price Ik22 5310 Iridium Spark Plugs) which determines the coagulation performance (Polished Modern Design Granite Vanity Top for Kitchen (SV003)). The dose of 4 mg Al.L-1resulted in pH >8.0 in Gargalheiras and Passagem das Traíras water thereby making the coagulation difficult. It has been suggested that high alkaline waters requires a higher PAC dose to achieve pH values favorable to coagulation (Chinese Manufacturer Quality Magnetic Filter Drawer Separator).
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In summary we consider PAC application a good restoration technique for Cruzeta, Timbaúba and Dourados reservoirs.Free Sample From Factory High Quality White Kaolin Clay Price.
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