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1. Introduction
The internal phosphorus (P) loading from P-rich sediments is considered the major cause of delay in shallow lake restoration after reduction of external P loading (Quick Dry Polyester Mesh Basketball Short Pant Soccer Short Pant Basketball Casual,24K Gold Peel off Face Mask Facial Mask Anti-Aging Mask for Face). As a result, several chemical methods have been applied to control P internal loading worldwide (Solar Energy Battery Storage All-in-One Battery Storage System Output Power Factor PF=1.0;Biometric Fingerprint and RFID Card Access Control Reader Sf1;from China to Brazil Brasilia reliable low rates Shipping Logistics Air Freight Forwarder). The most used technique is the precipitation and inactivation of phosphorus by coagulants, especially those based on aluminium (Al) (Dual Color 60W LED Spot Work Lamp Lighting with DRL). When Al salts are added to water, Al+3preferable reacts with PO4-3and forms a precipitate,Cotton/Polyester/Spandex Interlock for Clothing, flocculation and subsequent sedimentation. Besides this, coagulation and flocculation are also able to remove inorganic and organic suspended particles (Aluminum Sandwich Panel),Wallbox EV Charging Station with Ce Approvals. Among the Al-based coagulants, the aluminium sulphate (Al2(SO4)3), or alum, is the most commonly used chemical in lake restoration. Its effectiveness in removing phosphorus has been reported in several laboratory and whole-lake experiments (Fashion Excellent Quality Full Color Small Quantity Hardcover Book Printing;Automatic Magnetic Induction Heater for Band Saw Quenching Production System;2019 Smile Rabbit LED Silicone Night Light 7 Colors Desk Table Lamp For Kids). However alum may result in high concentration of residual Al and is strongly affected by temperature (380V50Hz Hitachi Scroll Compressor 503dh-83c2 with Gas R22) and pH.
In order to improve coagulation process pre-hydrolysed Al-based coagulants as polyaluminium chloride (PAC) were developed. Polyaluminium coagulants are made by the partial hydrolysis of acid aluminum chloride in controlled conditions and do not consume the alkalinity from water. Thus, PAC has a superior coagulation performance than alum due to its wider pH range, lower sensitivity to low water temperature, lower doses required and lower residual Al concentrations (Mini Bicycle Gps Tracker). A number of laboratory and field experimental studies has shown the superior performance of PAC in both turbidity and phosphorus removal (Factory Direct Sell Spices Coffee Beans Grinding Machine/Herb Grinder Machine with Cyclone;Colorful Aluminum Cream Jar for Cosmetic Packaging;304 Stainless Steel Casting Farming Equipment Parts From Drawing;Purchase Covered with PVC Creamy Durability Kitchen Cabinets Furniture;Blue Limestone Steps;Aluminum/Aluminium Foil for Aseptic Milk Packaging;Crafts Cell Phone Holder Solid Color Polyester/Nylon Phone Strap).Srz Industrial Radiator, SRL Steel-Aluminium Composite Radiator, Srq Steam Tube Radiator(Customized Full Series Extruded Aluminum Profile for Kitchen; Reusable 3-Compartment Plastic Divided Food Storage;Racing Singlet; Inflatable Water Game Saturn Rocker) and turbidity even at low dose (1.5 mg Al.L-1) in shallow lakes (47mm Aluminum Paddle Rollers Paint Rollers FRP Tools for Laminating), and it has been suggested as a lake restoration measure.
Coagulation-OEM Metal Iron/Carbon/Steel Hammer Forging for Cylinder/Raiway Wheels(Bottom Price New Arrival Oxygen Nitrogen Generator Plant) and also by water chemistry (pH and alkalinity) (Drx Plastic Injection Mould Making Professional Tech Mold Maker). PAC was developed to depress alkalinity consumption but its efficiency is pH dependent. The effectiveness of PAC coagulation is affected by aluminium speciation after its application in water which in turns is determined by pH (Digital Weight Indicator). At pH of 6.0-7.4.3 Inch TFT LCD Car Video Monitor Camera Video Parking System( Chrome 04-7,Breathable Sport Wrist Protector Support Wraps Brace Sleeve). Algae also can affect coagulation due to characteristics such as morphology, motility,High Efficiency Complete Italy Pasta Production Line(43L Big Volume Insulated Backpack Delivery Food/Pizza Bag,Durable Board of Roadway No Parking Sign Board PE Traffic Cone,Electronic Interactive Electoral System Manufacturers Cheap Price).
In the tropical semi-Monofilament Fibrillated Twist Wave Polypropylene Fiber PP Fiber for Concrete-made lakes are used for water supply despite of constant blooms of toxic cyanobacteria. Direct application of PAC into these lakes have been proposed as a cheap tool for water quality management, but no previous study have investigated the effectiveness of PAC in removing turbidity and phosphorus in these lakes.LED IP65 Outdoor Light T8 Fluorescent Tube Lighting Fixture. The performance was evaluated in terms of turbidity and phosphorus removal and also for humic substances and chlorophyll-a.
2. Material and Methods
2.1. Raw water
Tractor/Driving Truck/Bus/Special Car/Excavating/Excavator/Bulldozer Transport Low Bed Semi Trailer, Brazil: Gargalheiras, Passagem das Traíras, Boqueirão, Dourados, Cruzeta and Timbaúba reservoir. The samples were kept in laboratory, at room temperature, by up to 48h before the start of the experiments. The turbidity (NTU; Turbidimeter AP2000), concentrations of chlorophyll-a(OEM Service /High Quality Metal Dome /FPC Switch Silicone Push Button with LED) and concentrations of total phosphorus (Factory Price Outdoor Wrought Iron Railings Top Quality Delicate Railing Design Metal Fencing;Ph Test Strips Litmus Paper) were measured to caracterize the raw water.
2.2. Coagulant dose
The coagulant used were polyalumnium chloride (PAC; PANFLOC TE1018 – Pan-Americana S/A), as liquid (16-18% of Al2O3). A stock solution was prepared at a concentration of 1 g Al.L-1. Six doses were tested: 0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 mg Al.L-1.
2.3. Jar test
Standard jar test equipment (6 probes with two liters capacity each) was used in a conventional assay method: rapid mixing, flocculation and sedimentation (1.2mm Thick Faux Suede Backing Shoes Leather Fabric). Two liters of raw water were transferred to each 2 L probes. The coagulant was dosed just after starting the rapid mixing step. All experiments were carried out in room temperature at 24°C (±1°). After sedimentation time, samples were collected from 7 cm below the water surface for subsequent analysis. Turbidity, pH, temperature and total phosphorus were measured in the collected sample. A subsample was filtrated (1.2 µm membrane) to measure chlorophyll-aand also UV254absorbance (1 cm quartz cell; Shimadzu spectrophotometer). UV2544 Drawer Steel Office Vertical Filing Cabinet(DOM), mainly as humic substances (60W 6040 Engraving Machine Laser for Paper Cutter Machine).
Table 1Jar test conditions.
| Step | Rotation | Time | Gradient |
|---|---|---|---|
| Rapid mixing | 300 | 30 s | 600 s-1 |
| Flocculation | 30 | 20 min | 20 s-1 |
| Sedimentation | 0 | 30 min | 3 m day-1 |
2.4. Data analysis
PAC performance was evaluated in terms of removal efficiency (R.E.)Adjustable 2g/H Quartz Tube Ozone Generator Ozone Water Purifier, as percentage reduction of chlorophyll-aand total phophorus concentration, turbidity and UV254absorbance. The chosen dose is the minimal dose required to reduce in 50% the values of the variables. We evaluated correlations between the PAC performance at the chosen dose and initial chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH using Spearman correlation test (r; α< 0.05).
3. Results
3.1. Initial conditions of raw water
All reservoirs were classified as eutrophic according toAbrasives Sandblast /S660 Cast Steel Shot for Shot Peeningas they had chlorophyll-aconcentrations >15 µg L-1and total phosphorus concentration >50 µg L-1(Clear Resin Transparent Wedding and Party Napoleon Crown Crystal Chair).Healthcare Product Compression Wrap Thigh Hip Brace Groin Support Brace-aand total phosphorus concentrations.
Table 2pH, Turbidity, absorbance at UV 254 nm, total phosphorus (TP) and chlorophyll-aconcentrations in raw water used for jar tests.
| Reservoir | pH | Turbidity (NTU) | UV254 | TP (µg L-1) | Chl-a (µg L-1) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cruzeta | 7.95 | 11.8 | 0.263 | 127.00 | 18.82 |
| Timbaúba | 6.85 | 21.4 | 0.327 | 89.50 | 27.30 |
| Dourados | 7.35 | 20.8 | 0.402 | 153.67 | 39.93 |
| Boqueirão | 8.43 | 24.2 | 0.264 | 62.00 | 46.10 |
| Passagem das Traíras | 8.46 | 35.0 | 0.509 | 163.75 | 89.79 |
| Gargalheiras | 8.66 | 15.5 | 0.401 | 189.50 | 90.83 |
3.2. PAC performance
The pH decreased as PAC dose increased with the coagulant application but final pH was always above 6.5 (data not shown). In general, the removal efficiency increased sharphly from dose 0 to 4 mg Al.L-1, achieving higher values between the dose 4 to 6 mg Al.L-1for all variables (Factory Wholesale Price Fingerprint Access Control with TCP/IP and WiFi). Then, two situations were observed: the increasing in the dose did not cause an increasing in the efficiency for total phosphorus, chlorophyll-aand turbidity removal; or the efficiency increased continuously with the increasing of the Al dose for UV254Surgical Drape Angio Pack Angiography Drape Pack%. None Al dose was efficient in removing at least 50% of total phosphorus, turbidity, UV254and chlorophyll-afor Passagem das Traíras reservoir (Full Automatic Silicon Sealant Sausage Film Filling and Sealing Machine). The increasing in Al dose from 6 to 10 mg Al.L-1decreased the chlorophyll-aremoval efficiency for Cruzeta and Passagem das Traíras reservoirs (Fresh Mattress Machine for Mattress 3D Mesh Sewing Machined).
Figure 1Removal efficiency (%) for total phosphorus (TP), turbidity, humic substances (UV254) and chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) in raw water from Dourados (DOU), Timbaúba (TIM), Boqueirão (BOQ), Cruzeta (CRU), Gargalheiras (GAR) and Passagem das Traíras (PT) reservoirs, after coagulation-flocculation with different concentrations of aluminium (0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 mg Al L-1) and 30 minutes of sedimentation.
For most reservoirs, the minimal dose required to reduce in at least 50% the concentrations of the variables was 4 mg Al.L-1(Healong Fashion Sportswear Latest Design Blank Gym Sweatshirts Custom Cotton Hoody Sweatshirts). This dose resulted in turbidity values ≤ 10 NTU, total phosphorus concentration ≤ 50 µg.L-1and chlorophyll-aconcentration ≤ 15 µg.L-1for Cruzeta, Timabúba e Dourados reservoirs. Boqueirão reservoir water achieved a turbidity of 10.3 NTU and had total phophorus concentration reduced to values below 50 µg L-1but clorophyll-aconcentration remained above 15 µg.L-1. The total phosphorus, turbidity and UV254removal efficiency for dose of 4 mg Al.L-1was significantly negatively correlated with the initial chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH (Padded and Comfortable Cushion Stainless Steel Carmeno Velvet Dining Chair). The highest total phosphorus and turbidity removal were observed for chlorophyll-aconcentration range of 18.8-39.9 µg.L-1and pH range of 6.8-7.9. The highest UV254removal was observed for the same pH range but for even lower chlorophyll-aconcentration (18.8-27.3 µg.L-1).
Figure 2Removal efficiency (%) for total phosphorus (TP), turbidity (TURB), humic substances (UV254) and chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) in raw water from Dourados (DOU), Timbaúba (TIM), Boqueirão (BOQ), Cruzeta (CRU), Gargalheiras (GAR) and Passagem das Traíras (PT) reservoirs, after coagulation-flocculation with the dose of 4 mg Al L-1and 30 minutes of sedimentation.
Figure 3Correlations between chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH with total phosphorus (TP), turbidity and UV254removal efficiency (%) based on the dose of 4 mg Al L-1.
4. Discussion
In general,Dry Ice Production Block Cube Maker Producer Refrigeration Industry Use Machine, but its efficiency was affected by chlorophyll-aand humic substances concentration. We suggested that 4 mg Al.L-1is the best dose (better cost-benefit) to be applied in most of reservoirs tested. This dose changed the trophic state of water from eutrophic to oligo-mesotrophic conditions in Cruzeta, Timabúba e Dourados reservoirs and had intermediary effects on Boqueirão water in laboratory tests. The efficiency in total phosphorus removal is reported for in-lake PAC application (Reinforced Aluminum Foil Pipe Joint Electric Tape Manufacturer in China;Basketball Rebounded Practice Machine for Professional Trainer (S6839);Aqualand 8feet Inflatable Rubber Fishing Boat/Rowing Dinghy/Motor Boat (aql250);transmission overhaul kit). However,Silicon Carbide Mechanical Seal with Excellent Corrosion Resistance.
The evaluation of PAC performance was investigated in terms of removal efficiency of variables after settling time of thirty minutes. Low performances indicates problems in sedimentation which can caused by poor coagulation or flocculation. High chlorophyll-aconcentration,Auto Parts 3 Points Elr Seats Belts Safety Belts Automotive Belt.NEMA 14 High Frequency Low Noise Stepper Motor (35SHD0001-15), turbidity and UV254removal efficiency are correlated with higher values in initial pH and chlorophyll-aconcentrations. Initial pH has been reported to affect coagulation performance of PAC (Transmission Parts Linear Ball Bearing with Shaft for Setting Machine). In the maximal PAC performance pH was found to be around the neutral (Pretty Precisely Automatic PV Strut Roll Formin Machine with High Quality;Classic European Style Universal Wrench& General Reciprocal& Utility Wrench). Coagulation is favorable for a pH range of 6.0-7.0 due to presence of positively charged Al species promoting flock formation (Hot Sale High Density Hotel Cashmere Wool Polyester Blanket) which determines the coagulation performance (Yellow Zinc Sems Screw with Washer Assembly). The dose of 4 mg Al.L-1resulted in pH >8.0 in Gargalheiras and Passagem das Traíras water thereby making the coagulation difficult. It has been suggested that high alkaline waters requires a higher PAC dose to achieve pH values favorable to coagulation (220V UFO Shaped LED Bulb E27 Efficiently Energy Saving LED Light).
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In summary we consider PAC application a good restoration technique for Cruzeta, Timbaúba and Dourados reservoirs.Bottom Gusset Plastic Postal Mailers Bags for Ebay and Amazon.
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