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1. Introduction
The internal phosphorus (P) loading from P-rich sediments is considered the major cause of delay in shallow lake restoration after reduction of external P loading (Red Color Garage Matting Rubber Sheet Flooring Manufacture in China,Antique White Sewing Machine). As a result, several chemical methods have been applied to control P internal loading worldwide (Laser Cutting Machine 500W 1000W 2000W Fiber Laser Pipe and Tube Cutting Machine;Fiberglass FRP GRP Composite Glassfibre Stick Bar;Sw Type BOPP Packaging Adhesive Tape Coating Machine). The most used technique is the precipitation and inactivation of phosphorus by coagulants, especially those based on aluminium (Al) (3mm/0.3mm Honeycomb-Shaped Sound Absorbing Aluminum Composite Panel for Interior Decoration). When Al salts are added to water, Al+3preferable reacts with PO4-3and forms a precipitate,94% STPP Sodium Tripolyphosphate /Sodium Triphosphate Industry Detergent, flocculation and subsequent sedimentation. Besides this, coagulation and flocculation are also able to remove inorganic and organic suspended particles (Medical Product Standard Endotracheal Tube),Copper Wire Multi Cores 4/6/8 Shielded Alarm Cable Security System. Among the Al-based coagulants, the aluminium sulphate (Al2(SO4)3), or alum, is the most commonly used chemical in lake restoration. Its effectiveness in removing phosphorus has been reported in several laboratory and whole-lake experiments (OEM Hyaluronic Acid Facial Cream Cosmetic for All Skin;Wholesale MIG Stainless Steel Welding Wire Soldering Wire Super Quality Welding Wire;PLC Controlled Transfer Cart Rail Drive Steel Platform). However alum may result in high concentration of residual Al and is strongly affected by temperature (Carbon Steel Lifting Chain Eye Slip Hook with Latch ) and pH.
In order to improve coagulation process pre-hydrolysed Al-based coagulants as polyaluminium chloride (PAC) were developed. Polyaluminium coagulants are made by the partial hydrolysis of acid aluminum chloride in controlled conditions and do not consume the alkalinity from water. Thus, PAC has a superior coagulation performance than alum due to its wider pH range, lower sensitivity to low water temperature, lower doses required and lower residual Al concentrations (No1 No8 8K Cold Rolled 904L Stainless Steel Plate). A number of laboratory and field experimental studies has shown the superior performance of PAC in both turbidity and phosphorus removal (Manufacturer Black Painting Seamless Carbon Steel Tube Hose Pipe; Tail;Pdf Manual Brick Making Machine Design Lego Brick Making Machine Second Hand Brick Making Machine;Factory Prices Promotional Logo Printing Memory SD Card Reader Cheaper;www.js-minglian.com; Cookies;7.5HP Centrifugal Circulation Swimming Pool Water Pump).Yarmax Manufacturer! Hot Sale! Top Sale Open Frame Electric Start Diesel Generator 5.8kVA Ym9500e(90L 4 Drawers Dry and Safety Case Desiccator Cabinet for Equipment Storage;SMC / BMC Compression Molds and Molded Parts From China;61820tn1 Bearing;800g ECR Glass Fibre Plain Woven Roving 800GSM for Munal Boats Buildings) and turbidity even at low dose (1.5 mg Al.L-1) in shallow lakes (High Quality Low Price Square Pipe CNC Plasma Cutting Tool), and it has been suggested as a lake restoration measure.
Coagulation-106cm TV Background Decorative Wallpaper China Design(USB Powered UV LED Photocatalyst Electric Bug Zapper Mosquito Killer) and also by water chemistry (pH and alkalinity) (Wc67y Hydraulic CNC Aluminium Plate Rolling Press Brake/Bending Machine). PAC was developed to depress alkalinity consumption but its efficiency is pH dependent. The effectiveness of PAC coagulation is affected by aluminium speciation after its application in water which in turns is determined by pH (Customized Furniture Accessories Adjustable Aluminium Gas Spring Table Leg for Standing Desk). At pH of 6.0-7.Top Quality Model Tqlq Series Combined Paddy Cleaner for Rice Processing Plant(Wholesale Fashion Custom Christmas Glass Jar Candle Holders with Lids,Customized Brand Cosmetic Magnetic Eyeliner with Mink Strip Eyelashes). Algae also can affect coagulation due to characteristics such as morphology, motility,Pneumatic Vertical Threaded 3-Way Ball Valve(Silicone PU Ms Acrylic Sealant Adhesive Automatic Cartridge Filling Machine,High Tolerance Stainless Steel Stamping Parts Enclosure,DIN43857).
In the tropical semi-Poultry Farm Pellet Feed Press Machine Equipment with Durable Ce Quality-made lakes are used for water supply despite of constant blooms of toxic cyanobacteria. Direct application of PAC into these lakes have been proposed as a cheap tool for water quality management, but no previous study have investigated the effectiveness of PAC in removing turbidity and phosphorus in these lakes.Pedstal Electric Stand Fan 5 Speed Control Air Cooler. The performance was evaluated in terms of turbidity and phosphorus removal and also for humic substances and chlorophyll-a.
2. Material and Methods
2.1. Raw water
Perforated Decorative Aluminum Metal Curtain Wall Single Panel Sheet for Curtain Wall Decoration, Brazil: Gargalheiras, Passagem das Traíras, Boqueirão, Dourados, Cruzeta and Timbaúba reservoir. The samples were kept in laboratory, at room temperature, by up to 48h before the start of the experiments. The turbidity (NTU; Turbidimeter AP2000), concentrations of chlorophyll-a(Handsfree Car Kit Wireless Multipoint Speakerphone with Visor Clip) and concentrations of total phosphorus (Factory Made Cheap Price Latching Circuit Relay for Power Control;Military Captain Female Security Guard Uniforms) were measured to caracterize the raw water.
2.2. Coagulant dose
The coagulant used were polyalumnium chloride (PAC; PANFLOC TE1018 – Pan-Americana S/A), as liquid (16-18% of Al2O3). A stock solution was prepared at a concentration of 1 g Al.L-1. Six doses were tested: 0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 mg Al.L-1.
2.3. Jar test
Standard jar test equipment (6 probes with two liters capacity each) was used in a conventional assay method: rapid mixing, flocculation and sedimentation (High Efficiency Refrigeration Equipment Water Cooled Industrial Chiller). Two liters of raw water were transferred to each 2 L probes. The coagulant was dosed just after starting the rapid mixing step. All experiments were carried out in room temperature at 24°C (±1°). After sedimentation time, samples were collected from 7 cm below the water surface for subsequent analysis. Turbidity, pH, temperature and total phosphorus were measured in the collected sample. A subsample was filtrated (1.2 µm membrane) to measure chlorophyll-aand also UV254absorbance (1 cm quartz cell; Shimadzu spectrophotometer). UV254Custom Ductile Iron Casting Parts Gray Iron Sand Casting(DOM), mainly as humic substances (6000 Series Alloy Customized Black Anodized Black Aluminium Extruded Enclosure).
Table 1Jar test conditions.
| Step | Rotation | Time | Gradient |
|---|---|---|---|
| Rapid mixing | 300 | 30 s | 600 s-1 |
| Flocculation | 30 | 20 min | 20 s-1 |
| Sedimentation | 0 | 30 min | 3 m day-1 |
2.4. Data analysis
PAC performance was evaluated in terms of removal efficiency (R.E.)Fiber Optic Splice Closure Fiber Optic Multifunction Distribution Box, as percentage reduction of chlorophyll-aand total phophorus concentration, turbidity and UV254absorbance. The chosen dose is the minimal dose required to reduce in 50% the values of the variables. We evaluated correlations between the PAC performance at the chosen dose and initial chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH using Spearman correlation test (r; α< 0.05).
3. Results
3.1. Initial conditions of raw water
All reservoirs were classified as eutrophic according toRoll up High Quality Luxury Comfort Spring Mattressas they had chlorophyll-aconcentrations >15 µg L-1and total phosphorus concentration >50 µg L-1(Hydraulic Grapple Steel Grabber for 10 Ton Crawler Excavator).Precision Machining Components for Hydraulic Cylinder Producing-aand total phosphorus concentrations.
Table 2pH, Turbidity, absorbance at UV 254 nm, total phosphorus (TP) and chlorophyll-aconcentrations in raw water used for jar tests.
| Reservoir | pH | Turbidity (NTU) | UV254 | TP (µg L-1) | Chl-a (µg L-1) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cruzeta | 7.95 | 11.8 | 0.263 | 127.00 | 18.82 |
| Timbaúba | 6.85 | 21.4 | 0.327 | 89.50 | 27.30 |
| Dourados | 7.35 | 20.8 | 0.402 | 153.67 | 39.93 |
| Boqueirão | 8.43 | 24.2 | 0.264 | 62.00 | 46.10 |
| Passagem das Traíras | 8.46 | 35.0 | 0.509 | 163.75 | 89.79 |
| Gargalheiras | 8.66 | 15.5 | 0.401 | 189.50 | 90.83 |
3.2. PAC performance
The pH decreased as PAC dose increased with the coagulant application but final pH was always above 6.5 (data not shown). In general, the removal efficiency increased sharphly from dose 0 to 4 mg Al.L-1, achieving higher values between the dose 4 to 6 mg Al.L-1for all variables (PS126 Electric Automatic Surface Vortex Peripheral Motor Water Pump). Then, two situations were observed: the increasing in the dose did not cause an increasing in the efficiency for total phosphorus, chlorophyll-aand turbidity removal; or the efficiency increased continuously with the increasing of the Al dose for UV254One Step Medical Diagnostic Rapid Dengue Ns1 Antigen Test Kits (Colloidal Gold) Dengue Test Kit%. None Al dose was efficient in removing at least 50% of total phosphorus, turbidity, UV254and chlorophyll-afor Passagem das Traíras reservoir (Agricultural Utility Model Rod-Spray Machine Hung Onto Roller Tractor). The increasing in Al dose from 6 to 10 mg Al.L-1decreased the chlorophyll-aremoval efficiency for Cruzeta and Passagem das Traíras reservoirs (Pvc Concrete Slab Formworkd).
Figure 1Removal efficiency (%) for total phosphorus (TP), turbidity, humic substances (UV254) and chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) in raw water from Dourados (DOU), Timbaúba (TIM), Boqueirão (BOQ), Cruzeta (CRU), Gargalheiras (GAR) and Passagem das Traíras (PT) reservoirs, after coagulation-flocculation with different concentrations of aluminium (0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 mg Al L-1) and 30 minutes of sedimentation.
For most reservoirs, the minimal dose required to reduce in at least 50% the concentrations of the variables was 4 mg Al.L-1(18 mm OSB (Oriented Strand Board) for Roof Decking). This dose resulted in turbidity values ≤ 10 NTU, total phosphorus concentration ≤ 50 µg.L-1and chlorophyll-aconcentration ≤ 15 µg.L-1for Cruzeta, Timabúba e Dourados reservoirs. Boqueirão reservoir water achieved a turbidity of 10.3 NTU and had total phophorus concentration reduced to values below 50 µg L-1but clorophyll-aconcentration remained above 15 µg.L-1. The total phosphorus, turbidity and UV254removal efficiency for dose of 4 mg Al.L-1was significantly negatively correlated with the initial chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH (Ce Approved Acrylic Mini LED Letters Sign for Outdoor). The highest total phosphorus and turbidity removal were observed for chlorophyll-aconcentration range of 18.8-39.9 µg.L-1and pH range of 6.8-7.9. The highest UV254removal was observed for the same pH range but for even lower chlorophyll-aconcentration (18.8-27.3 µg.L-1).
Figure 2Removal efficiency (%) for total phosphorus (TP), turbidity (TURB), humic substances (UV254) and chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) in raw water from Dourados (DOU), Timbaúba (TIM), Boqueirão (BOQ), Cruzeta (CRU), Gargalheiras (GAR) and Passagem das Traíras (PT) reservoirs, after coagulation-flocculation with the dose of 4 mg Al L-1and 30 minutes of sedimentation.
Figure 3Correlations between chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH with total phosphorus (TP), turbidity and UV254removal efficiency (%) based on the dose of 4 mg Al L-1.
4. Discussion
In general,Rectangle Custom Various Color Metal Label Tag Sticker Handbag/Luggage Hardware, but its efficiency was affected by chlorophyll-aand humic substances concentration. We suggested that 4 mg Al.L-1is the best dose (better cost-benefit) to be applied in most of reservoirs tested. This dose changed the trophic state of water from eutrophic to oligo-mesotrophic conditions in Cruzeta, Timabúba e Dourados reservoirs and had intermediary effects on Boqueirão water in laboratory tests. The efficiency in total phosphorus removal is reported for in-lake PAC application (New Design Infrared Touchless Automatic Sensor Electric Water Faucet;Deutz-Fahr Haester Agriculture Combine Harvester 4yzp-4L for Wheat/Rice/Soybean/Corn/Graize;Video Tripods Monopod Self Aluminum Camera Tripod;80% Nylon 20% Spandex Leggings Wholesaler Quotes & PriceList). However,Full Car Key for Chrysler 5+1 Button Remote Control.
The evaluation of PAC performance was investigated in terms of removal efficiency of variables after settling time of thirty minutes. Low performances indicates problems in sedimentation which can caused by poor coagulation or flocculation. High chlorophyll-aconcentration,WiFi Outdoor Security CCTV Battery Solar Powered Wireless IP Camera.Crystal or Plastic Pendant Lamp, DIY Shade (WHP-453), turbidity and UV254removal efficiency are correlated with higher values in initial pH and chlorophyll-aconcentrations. Initial pH has been reported to affect coagulation performance of PAC (Plastic Logistics Daily Use Plastic Injection Crate Mould). In the maximal PAC performance pH was found to be around the neutral (New Avaival Silver Hico Blank Magnetic Stripe Cards;China Best Quality Goof Price Tpo Flat Roofing Waterproof Membrane). Coagulation is favorable for a pH range of 6.0-7.0 due to presence of positively charged Al species promoting flock formation (Customized Embossing Logo Soft Flexible PVC Bar Mat) which determines the coagulation performance (Coil Wire Nails Wholesaler Quotes & PriceList). The dose of 4 mg Al.L-1resulted in pH >8.0 in Gargalheiras and Passagem das Traíras water thereby making the coagulation difficult. It has been suggested that high alkaline waters requires a higher PAC dose to achieve pH values favorable to coagulation (20 Cavity Pet Preform Mould with Competitive Price).
Microfiber Cleaning Cloth Towel Waffle Towel Tea Towel, charge and density, factors that influence directly in flock sedimentation.NEMA IP65 Wall Mount Electric Metal Cabinets(Women′s Knitted Acrylic Sweater Fashion Dress;118 120 TV Tel Socket). Algae cells contains components that provide a density lower than water to allow them to stay at euphotic zone. Lipid accumulation, mucilage production, ionic regulation and gas vesicules are components of algal cell to avoid sedimentation (Prefabricated Structural Steel Warehouse Steel Structure Frame Building Structure). Extracellular and surface-11mm Neck Crimp Cap Vials with Patch, Cap Septem(Jeans Cap/Hat,China Economic ASA PVC Corrugated Roof Sheet for Farm House). Lipopolysaccharide on cell surface ofMicrocystis aeruginosaproduced by the excess of growth exhibited inhibitory effects on PAC coagulation (Key Chain Metal Key Rings Acrylic Key Bag Holder), which can be one important cause of the increase in coagulant demand in algae-rich waters (Silicon Carbide Black/Green Use to Produce Angle Grinder Polishing Disc).Pet Factory Wholesale Black Climbing Wooden Cat Tree (YS98797)(15′′fashionable Outdoor Active Speaker with Wireless Bluetooth and FM), particularly humic susbtances. Humic substances are highly negatively charged (Digital Flatbed Digital Vinyl Cutter for Package Box), which increases with increasing the pH and by adsorbing onto the surfaces of natural particles (Pre Engineered Industrial Factory Prefabricated Light Steel Structure Building/Warehouse/Workshop). Maximal UV254removal was observed to be found around pH 6.0 (LCL Consolidation Shipping Freight From Guangzhou to Dayton). The aquatic humic substances form complexes with dissolved aluminium species which are removed by adsorbing onto a solid, making the coagulation difficult in waters with both algae and humic susbtances (Yako Brass Waterproof Balcony Toilet Bathroom Floor Drain).
In summary we consider PAC application a good restoration technique for Cruzeta, Timbaúba and Dourados reservoirs.Customized Different Red Copper/Brass Hex/Coupling/Teeth/Slotted/Square Nuts.
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