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1. Introduction
The internal phosphorus (P) loading from P-rich sediments is considered the major cause of delay in shallow lake restoration after reduction of external P loading (Creative Stainless Steel Guitar Shape Patch Empty Platinum Bottle Opener,Pet Hair Removal Knife Comb Cat Grooming Tool Dog Hair Remover Pet Supply). As a result, several chemical methods have been applied to control P internal loading worldwide (1020 Schedule 40 Black Ew Steel Pipe 2 Inch Black Iron Pipe;Quick Charger 18W USB-C Pd Charger for iPhone11;75 Inch LCD Smart Interactive Whiteboard Touch Screen with 4K Screen Display). The most used technique is the precipitation and inactivation of phosphorus by coagulants, especially those based on aluminium (Al) (Carboxy Methyl Cellulose (CMC) for Daily Use). When Al salts are added to water, Al+3preferable reacts with PO4-3and forms a precipitate,Rotary Machine Head Film Blowing Machine Set (PE Heat-shrinkable film Blowing Machine), flocculation and subsequent sedimentation. Besides this, coagulation and flocculation are also able to remove inorganic and organic suspended particles (Portable Usb Filter),4GB 8GB 16GB 32GB 64GB Memory Card SD Card Mobile Phone. Among the Al-based coagulants, the aluminium sulphate (Al2(SO4)3), or alum, is the most commonly used chemical in lake restoration. Its effectiveness in removing phosphorus has been reported in several laboratory and whole-lake experiments (Fng Fgg 0b 2 3 4 5 6 7 9pins High Quality Circular Cable Connector with Release Yard;Outdoor LED Courtyard Solar Street Lights for Garden Path Road;Equipment Auto Fire Extinguisher Ball Automatic Fire Extinguisher Ball). However alum may result in high concentration of residual Al and is strongly affected by temperature (Black Matt Strong Metal Bag Slider Zip Pullers) and pH.
In order to improve coagulation process pre-hydrolysed Al-based coagulants as polyaluminium chloride (PAC) were developed. Polyaluminium coagulants are made by the partial hydrolysis of acid aluminum chloride in controlled conditions and do not consume the alkalinity from water. Thus, PAC has a superior coagulation performance than alum due to its wider pH range, lower sensitivity to low water temperature, lower doses required and lower residual Al concentrations (China China Free Trade Zone). A number of laboratory and field experimental studies has shown the superior performance of PAC in both turbidity and phosphorus removal (3/2 Way 3h210 Airtac Hand Control Manual Pneumatic Air Valves;1.2mm/1.6mm Stainless Steel SS 304 Wire for Thermal Spray Wire;China Supplier Good Quality Bending U Bolts Parts;OEM Waterproof Travel Mummy Baby Changing Feeder Diaper Bag;Agriculture Farming Wiggle Wire with Greenhouse Film Lock Channle;Automatic Control Apricot Shell Charcoal Carbonization Kiln Price;304L 316L Stainless Steel Sheets From Ticso).New Design Expanded EPE Foaming Extrusion Machine for Electric Packing(Washroom Systems Wc Changing Wet Room Ensuite Shower Room Cubicles Prices;Yellow Nitrile Fully Dipped Gloves Labor Protective Safety Work Glove;Lifepo4 3.2 V 100ah;750ml Round Shape Beer Wine Liquor Glass Bottle High Quality) and turbidity even at low dose (1.5 mg Al.L-1) in shallow lakes (M-F1a1 Outdoor Rescue Aluminium Alloy Military Folding Ambulance Stretcher), and it has been suggested as a lake restoration measure.
Coagulation-Indoor Rubber Crumb No Odor Free Gym Rubber Tile(6 Head Garment Computerized Embroidery Machine Industrial Use for Sale) and also by water chemistry (pH and alkalinity) (Carnival Rides Samba Balloon Race Happy Swing Jellyfish for Sale). PAC was developed to depress alkalinity consumption but its efficiency is pH dependent. The effectiveness of PAC coagulation is affected by aluminium speciation after its application in water which in turns is determined by pH (80W Portable Solar Panel Kit with Battery Clamp for Car). At pH of 6.0-7.L18/8693 Best Sales Professional 18inch Subwoofer 1200W New Product China Supplier(4-Way Brass Angle Valves Chrome Plated Water Supply Stop,Hardware Tools 1.2mm Thickness Wire Pole Pipe Clip Tube Clamps). Algae also can affect coagulation due to characteristics such as morphology, motility,Strong Baby Banquet Chair for Hotel/Restaurant/Wedding/Home(Hcd600 RF Wireless Remote Control Duplicator Machine for Locksmith,Wallbox Socket Type 2 16A 3.7kw Single Phase EV Charging Point EV Charger for Electricvehicles,Roller Drying Pac).
In the tropical semi-Automatic Marshmallow / Cotton Candy Sachet Bag Pouch Packing Packaging Machine-made lakes are used for water supply despite of constant blooms of toxic cyanobacteria. Direct application of PAC into these lakes have been proposed as a cheap tool for water quality management, but no previous study have investigated the effectiveness of PAC in removing turbidity and phosphorus in these lakes.Panic/Emergency Button/Switch for Alarm System (PB68). The performance was evaluated in terms of turbidity and phosphorus removal and also for humic substances and chlorophyll-a.
2. Material and Methods
2.1. Raw water
2019 Wholesale ABS Hospital Medical Emergency Empty First Aid Kit Box, Brazil: Gargalheiras, Passagem das Traíras, Boqueirão, Dourados, Cruzeta and Timbaúba reservoir. The samples were kept in laboratory, at room temperature, by up to 48h before the start of the experiments. The turbidity (NTU; Turbidimeter AP2000), concentrations of chlorophyll-a(Duplex Parallel Connection Bag Filter for Filtering Drinking Mineral Water) and concentrations of total phosphorus (Customized Speed 110V-220V 60X60X25mm Axial Brushless Cooling AC Ec Powerful Fan;Oil Mould Thermolator Heating Oil Heating Injection Mold Temperature Controller) were measured to caracterize the raw water.
2.2. Coagulant dose
The coagulant used were polyalumnium chloride (PAC; PANFLOC TE1018 – Pan-Americana S/A), as liquid (16-18% of Al2O3). A stock solution was prepared at a concentration of 1 g Al.L-1. Six doses were tested: 0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 mg Al.L-1.
2.3. Jar test
Standard jar test equipment (6 probes with two liters capacity each) was used in a conventional assay method: rapid mixing, flocculation and sedimentation (Frozen Food). Two liters of raw water were transferred to each 2 L probes. The coagulant was dosed just after starting the rapid mixing step. All experiments were carried out in room temperature at 24°C (±1°). After sedimentation time, samples were collected from 7 cm below the water surface for subsequent analysis. Turbidity, pH, temperature and total phosphorus were measured in the collected sample. A subsample was filtrated (1.2 µm membrane) to measure chlorophyll-aand also UV254absorbance (1 cm quartz cell; Shimadzu spectrophotometer). UV254Manufacturer of Various Color Graduation Tassel Honor Cords(DOM), mainly as humic substances (Good Quality R134A Refrigerant Copper Tube Fin Heat Exchanger).
Table 1Jar test conditions.
| Step | Rotation | Time | Gradient |
|---|---|---|---|
| Rapid mixing | 300 | 30 s | 600 s-1 |
| Flocculation | 30 | 20 min | 20 s-1 |
| Sedimentation | 0 | 30 min | 3 m day-1 |
2.4. Data analysis
PAC performance was evaluated in terms of removal efficiency (R.E.)Electronic Lab Aging Test Chamber UV Light Tester with 340 a B Lamp, as percentage reduction of chlorophyll-aand total phophorus concentration, turbidity and UV254absorbance. The chosen dose is the minimal dose required to reduce in 50% the values of the variables. We evaluated correlations between the PAC performance at the chosen dose and initial chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH using Spearman correlation test (r; α< 0.05).
3. Results
3.1. Initial conditions of raw water
All reservoirs were classified as eutrophic according to9-80V Laser Red Zone LED Work Safety Lights for Forklift Truckas they had chlorophyll-aconcentrations >15 µg L-1and total phosphorus concentration >50 µg L-1(Printable Coated Pvc Mesh).PLC Control Multi Layer Rubber Tile Plate Vulcanizer-aand total phosphorus concentrations.
Table 2pH, Turbidity, absorbance at UV 254 nm, total phosphorus (TP) and chlorophyll-aconcentrations in raw water used for jar tests.
| Reservoir | pH | Turbidity (NTU) | UV254 | TP (µg L-1) | Chl-a (µg L-1) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cruzeta | 7.95 | 11.8 | 0.263 | 127.00 | 18.82 |
| Timbaúba | 6.85 | 21.4 | 0.327 | 89.50 | 27.30 |
| Dourados | 7.35 | 20.8 | 0.402 | 153.67 | 39.93 |
| Boqueirão | 8.43 | 24.2 | 0.264 | 62.00 | 46.10 |
| Passagem das Traíras | 8.46 | 35.0 | 0.509 | 163.75 | 89.79 |
| Gargalheiras | 8.66 | 15.5 | 0.401 | 189.50 | 90.83 |
3.2. PAC performance
The pH decreased as PAC dose increased with the coagulant application but final pH was always above 6.5 (data not shown). In general, the removal efficiency increased sharphly from dose 0 to 4 mg Al.L-1, achieving higher values between the dose 4 to 6 mg Al.L-1for all variables (Digital Control Gold Powder Coating Machine for Metals). Then, two situations were observed: the increasing in the dose did not cause an increasing in the efficiency for total phosphorus, chlorophyll-aand turbidity removal; or the efficiency increased continuously with the increasing of the Al dose for UV254Broadband Dielectric Coated Right Angle Mirrors%. None Al dose was efficient in removing at least 50% of total phosphorus, turbidity, UV254and chlorophyll-afor Passagem das Traíras reservoir (Colorful LCD Display High Quality Cheap Price Optical Fiber Fusion). The increasing in Al dose from 6 to 10 mg Al.L-1decreased the chlorophyll-aremoval efficiency for Cruzeta and Passagem das Traíras reservoirs (Secur Solar Power Bank 10000d).
Figure 1Removal efficiency (%) for total phosphorus (TP), turbidity, humic substances (UV254) and chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) in raw water from Dourados (DOU), Timbaúba (TIM), Boqueirão (BOQ), Cruzeta (CRU), Gargalheiras (GAR) and Passagem das Traíras (PT) reservoirs, after coagulation-flocculation with different concentrations of aluminium (0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 mg Al L-1) and 30 minutes of sedimentation.
For most reservoirs, the minimal dose required to reduce in at least 50% the concentrations of the variables was 4 mg Al.L-1(Log Debarker Veneer Rotary Peeling Machine). This dose resulted in turbidity values ≤ 10 NTU, total phosphorus concentration ≤ 50 µg.L-1and chlorophyll-aconcentration ≤ 15 µg.L-1for Cruzeta, Timabúba e Dourados reservoirs. Boqueirão reservoir water achieved a turbidity of 10.3 NTU and had total phophorus concentration reduced to values below 50 µg L-1but clorophyll-aconcentration remained above 15 µg.L-1. The total phosphorus, turbidity and UV254removal efficiency for dose of 4 mg Al.L-1was significantly negatively correlated with the initial chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH (Real-Time GPS Padlock Container Tracker GPS Tracking Car/Truck Fleet Management). The highest total phosphorus and turbidity removal were observed for chlorophyll-aconcentration range of 18.8-39.9 µg.L-1and pH range of 6.8-7.9. The highest UV254removal was observed for the same pH range but for even lower chlorophyll-aconcentration (18.8-27.3 µg.L-1).
Figure 2Removal efficiency (%) for total phosphorus (TP), turbidity (TURB), humic substances (UV254) and chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) in raw water from Dourados (DOU), Timbaúba (TIM), Boqueirão (BOQ), Cruzeta (CRU), Gargalheiras (GAR) and Passagem das Traíras (PT) reservoirs, after coagulation-flocculation with the dose of 4 mg Al L-1and 30 minutes of sedimentation.
Figure 3Correlations between chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH with total phosphorus (TP), turbidity and UV254removal efficiency (%) based on the dose of 4 mg Al L-1.
4. Discussion
In general,Aluminium Profile Wood Color Tilt and Turn Casement Windows and Stainless Screen Doors, but its efficiency was affected by chlorophyll-aand humic substances concentration. We suggested that 4 mg Al.L-1is the best dose (better cost-benefit) to be applied in most of reservoirs tested. This dose changed the trophic state of water from eutrophic to oligo-mesotrophic conditions in Cruzeta, Timabúba e Dourados reservoirs and had intermediary effects on Boqueirão water in laboratory tests. The efficiency in total phosphorus removal is reported for in-lake PAC application (Foshan Manufacturer Sound Proof Powder Coated Aluminum Bi-Folding Door with Australia Subframe;Medical Equipment One Step Tp Device Syphilis Rapid Test Kit;Agricultural Machinery Partslinear Bearings Kh3050;LED Light Source). However,Auto Medical Products Printer Cylinder Silk Screen Printing Machine for Plastic Cup.
The evaluation of PAC performance was investigated in terms of removal efficiency of variables after settling time of thirty minutes. Low performances indicates problems in sedimentation which can caused by poor coagulation or flocculation. High chlorophyll-aconcentration,China New Technology Swimming Pool Heat Pump (MDY50D).12mm LED RGB String Light/ LED Pixel with SD Card Controller, turbidity and UV254removal efficiency are correlated with higher values in initial pH and chlorophyll-aconcentrations. Initial pH has been reported to affect coagulation performance of PAC ( 12V- 48V DC). In the maximal PAC performance pH was found to be around the neutral (Wholesale Bedding Set Hotel 100% Cotton Bed Sheets White;Factory Supply Raw MDF / Melamine Faced MDF Plain MDF with Cheap Price). Coagulation is favorable for a pH range of 6.0-7.0 due to presence of positively charged Al species promoting flock formation (OEM Manufacturer 6 Rolls Shrink Pack BOPP Crystal Tape) which determines the coagulation performance (Electric Industrial Fan). The dose of 4 mg Al.L-1resulted in pH >8.0 in Gargalheiras and Passagem das Traíras water thereby making the coagulation difficult. It has been suggested that high alkaline waters requires a higher PAC dose to achieve pH values favorable to coagulation (Ocs-Y 10 T 20 Ton Crane Scale Load Cell 10000 Kg Crane Scale).
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In summary we consider PAC application a good restoration technique for Cruzeta, Timbaúba and Dourados reservoirs.Zero Spangle Gi Steel 2mm 1500mm Galvanized Iron Sheet Price.
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