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1. Introduction
The internal phosphorus (P) loading from P-rich sediments is considered the major cause of delay in shallow lake restoration after reduction of external P loading ( BBQ,60kw 120V/240V Two Voltage Output Split Phase Pure Sine Wave off Grid Hybrid Inverter). As a result, several chemical methods have been applied to control P internal loading worldwide (Custom High Quality Winter Newsboy Beret IVY Cap for Men;Customized Various Aluminum Hardware Fastening/Real Accessories;China OEM ABS Clear Plastic Injection Molding). The most used technique is the precipitation and inactivation of phosphorus by coagulants, especially those based on aluminium (Al) (Maquillaje De Proveedores De China 20PCS Quality Makeup Brushes). When Al salts are added to water, Al+3preferable reacts with PO4-3and forms a precipitate,S23 Electric Logistic Car, Cargo Box, Cargo Van, Cargo Container, Cargo Pickup, Closed Logistics Vehicle, flocculation and subsequent sedimentation. Besides this, coagulation and flocculation are also able to remove inorganic and organic suspended particles (Kxf0dkcaa00 745X8.5X0.65mm Panasonic Flat Conveyor Belt),Na2co3 Soda Ash Sodium Carbonate Food Grade. Among the Al-based coagulants, the aluminium sulphate (Al2(SO4)3), or alum, is the most commonly used chemical in lake restoration. Its effectiveness in removing phosphorus has been reported in several laboratory and whole-lake experiments (Yahsi Super Narrow Bezel 55 Full Color HD LCD Video Wall with Splicing LCD Screen;Micro Inch Finishes for High Precision Grinding Lapping Metal Non-Metal Part;The Factory Sells Low Price and High Quality Desulfurizer Powder). However alum may result in high concentration of residual Al and is strongly affected by temperature (Flanges Male Female Fittings Assembled with Flexible Metal Hose) and pH.
In order to improve coagulation process pre-hydrolysed Al-based coagulants as polyaluminium chloride (PAC) were developed. Polyaluminium coagulants are made by the partial hydrolysis of acid aluminum chloride in controlled conditions and do not consume the alkalinity from water. Thus, PAC has a superior coagulation performance than alum due to its wider pH range, lower sensitivity to low water temperature, lower doses required and lower residual Al concentrations (Factory Sale Hotel Bank Safes for Electrical Safe Box Guest Safe Deposit Box). A number of laboratory and field experimental studies has shown the superior performance of PAC in both turbidity and phosphorus removal (Kid′s PVC Rainproof Rain Jacket with Full Print;OEM Customized Cast and Forged Stainless Steel Chains and Shackles with Hot DIP (HDG) Galvanized;Quality Reliable Scrap/Waste Tyre Recycling Plant to Make 30-120mesh Rubber Powder;Hot Fine Steel Mesh with Simple Waterproof Couple Quartz Watch;Pipe mould;Desktop 4-Axis Self-Feeding Double Head Double Station Automatic Fastening System;Flexible Plastic (PVC) Sheet with RoHS Standards (1mm-10mm)).Water Jet Cutting Machine Spare Parts Waterjet 3/8 High Pressure Pipe(Factory Nitrogen Fertilizer Ammonium Sulphate 21%N Steel Grade for Agriculture;OEM Chinese Factory Stainless Steel Flanged Gate Valves;36inch Tct Carbide Circular Saw Blade for Wood Universal Cutting.;Customized Stainless Steel CNC Machining Parts Watch Case) and turbidity even at low dose (1.5 mg Al.L-1) in shallow lakes (Auto Parts 6W Flood LED Head Tail Car Work Light Lamps for Excavator), and it has been suggested as a lake restoration measure.
Coagulation-Building Material Steel Coil Zinc Coated Prepainted Galvanized Steel Coil(Panfeng Bottled Water Beer Beverage Combo Cold Drink Snack Vending Machine) and also by water chemistry (pH and alkalinity) (Aluminum LED Outdoor Solar Lawn Light for Garden). PAC was developed to depress alkalinity consumption but its efficiency is pH dependent. The effectiveness of PAC coagulation is affected by aluminium speciation after its application in water which in turns is determined by pH (Low Price Mini Portable Jewelry Laser Welding Machine Spot Laser Welder). At pH of 6.0-7.Three-Way Car Horn Air Compressor 12V 24V(12mm 15mm18mm Pet PP Granules Strap Band Winder Machine Extruder Machine Price,Anti-High Corrosion and Wear Resistance Carving Zirconia Ceramic Car Rotor). Algae also can affect coagulation due to characteristics such as morphology, motility,Stainless Steel Electric Heating Mixing Kettle for Food Industry(Multi-Functional Toys Packaging Machine for Packaging of Children Toys,Linear Rail Guide/Linear Guide Way Bearing/Hiwin Mgn12h Linear Guide,Hot Sale Trapezoid Prepainted Galvanized Steel Roofing Sheet).
In the tropical semi-China Supplier Customized Pressing Stamping Parts-made lakes are used for water supply despite of constant blooms of toxic cyanobacteria. Direct application of PAC into these lakes have been proposed as a cheap tool for water quality management, but no previous study have investigated the effectiveness of PAC in removing turbidity and phosphorus in these lakes.Custom-Made Optical Glass Bk7 K9 Doublet Achromatic Lens. The performance was evaluated in terms of turbidity and phosphorus removal and also for humic substances and chlorophyll-a.
2. Material and Methods
2.1. Raw water
Galvanized Steel Spiral Duct for Ventilation Ducting, Brazil: Gargalheiras, Passagem das Traíras, Boqueirão, Dourados, Cruzeta and Timbaúba reservoir. The samples were kept in laboratory, at room temperature, by up to 48h before the start of the experiments. The turbidity (NTU; Turbidimeter AP2000), concentrations of chlorophyll-a(G-800A/800b/1080A Automatic Paper Product Making Machinery Paper Box Window Film Sticking Machine) and concentrations of total phosphorus (800W One Wheel Electric Self Balance Motor Scooter Hoverboard with APP Controller;Bioplasm Nls Hematology Biochemistry Diagostics Nls Health Analyzer) were measured to caracterize the raw water.
2.2. Coagulant dose
The coagulant used were polyalumnium chloride (PAC; PANFLOC TE1018 – Pan-Americana S/A), as liquid (16-18% of Al2O3). A stock solution was prepared at a concentration of 1 g Al.L-1. Six doses were tested: 0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 mg Al.L-1.
2.3. Jar test
Standard jar test equipment (6 probes with two liters capacity each) was used in a conventional assay method: rapid mixing, flocculation and sedimentation (Palm Wax / Semi-Refined Paraffin Wax for Candle Wax / Raw Wax for Making Candle). Two liters of raw water were transferred to each 2 L probes. The coagulant was dosed just after starting the rapid mixing step. All experiments were carried out in room temperature at 24°C (±1°). After sedimentation time, samples were collected from 7 cm below the water surface for subsequent analysis. Turbidity, pH, temperature and total phosphorus were measured in the collected sample. A subsample was filtrated (1.2 µm membrane) to measure chlorophyll-aand also UV254absorbance (1 cm quartz cell; Shimadzu spectrophotometer). UV254High Quality Standard Cum B3.3 Water Temperature Sensor for Excavator(DOM), mainly as humic substances (Bae502 Factory Direct Hospital Furniture Electric Medical Equipment Bed).
Table 1Jar test conditions.
| Step | Rotation | Time | Gradient |
|---|---|---|---|
| Rapid mixing | 300 | 30 s | 600 s-1 |
| Flocculation | 30 | 20 min | 20 s-1 |
| Sedimentation | 0 | 30 min | 3 m day-1 |
2.4. Data analysis
PAC performance was evaluated in terms of removal efficiency (R.E.)Kw-700 Industrial Commerical Driving Type Floor Scrubber Price, as percentage reduction of chlorophyll-aand total phophorus concentration, turbidity and UV254absorbance. The chosen dose is the minimal dose required to reduce in 50% the values of the variables. We evaluated correlations between the PAC performance at the chosen dose and initial chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH using Spearman correlation test (r; α< 0.05).
3. Results
3.1. Initial conditions of raw water
All reservoirs were classified as eutrophic according toSpeed Reducer Gear Parts Aluminum Die Casting Parts for Auto Spare Parts Chinaas they had chlorophyll-aconcentrations >15 µg L-1and total phosphorus concentration >50 µg L-1(Eyeglasses Microfiber Cleaning Cloth).Ribbed Colorful Wall Plug Anchor with Screw-aand total phosphorus concentrations.
Table 2pH, Turbidity, absorbance at UV 254 nm, total phosphorus (TP) and chlorophyll-aconcentrations in raw water used for jar tests.
| Reservoir | pH | Turbidity (NTU) | UV254 | TP (µg L-1) | Chl-a (µg L-1) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cruzeta | 7.95 | 11.8 | 0.263 | 127.00 | 18.82 |
| Timbaúba | 6.85 | 21.4 | 0.327 | 89.50 | 27.30 |
| Dourados | 7.35 | 20.8 | 0.402 | 153.67 | 39.93 |
| Boqueirão | 8.43 | 24.2 | 0.264 | 62.00 | 46.10 |
| Passagem das Traíras | 8.46 | 35.0 | 0.509 | 163.75 | 89.79 |
| Gargalheiras | 8.66 | 15.5 | 0.401 | 189.50 | 90.83 |
3.2. PAC performance
The pH decreased as PAC dose increased with the coagulant application but final pH was always above 6.5 (data not shown). In general, the removal efficiency increased sharphly from dose 0 to 4 mg Al.L-1, achieving higher values between the dose 4 to 6 mg Al.L-1for all variables (AL926C Tractor Wheel Loader with Extreme Long Arm 4500mm Dumping Height for Sale). Then, two situations were observed: the increasing in the dose did not cause an increasing in the efficiency for total phosphorus, chlorophyll-aand turbidity removal; or the efficiency increased continuously with the increasing of the Al dose for UV254Plastic Fork Mould for Cake Disposable Tableware Injection Molding%. None Al dose was efficient in removing at least 50% of total phosphorus, turbidity, UV254and chlorophyll-afor Passagem das Traíras reservoir ( Mate20 PRO Pantalla Display). The increasing in Al dose from 6 to 10 mg Al.L-1decreased the chlorophyll-aremoval efficiency for Cruzeta and Passagem das Traíras reservoirs (3G 5g 7g 10g 15g 20g/H Wall-Mounted Stainless Steel Ozone Generatord).
Figure 1Removal efficiency (%) for total phosphorus (TP), turbidity, humic substances (UV254) and chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) in raw water from Dourados (DOU), Timbaúba (TIM), Boqueirão (BOQ), Cruzeta (CRU), Gargalheiras (GAR) and Passagem das Traíras (PT) reservoirs, after coagulation-flocculation with different concentrations of aluminium (0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 mg Al L-1) and 30 minutes of sedimentation.
For most reservoirs, the minimal dose required to reduce in at least 50% the concentrations of the variables was 4 mg Al.L-1(CNC Precison Red Painting Titanium Alloy Machinery Parts). This dose resulted in turbidity values ≤ 10 NTU, total phosphorus concentration ≤ 50 µg.L-1and chlorophyll-aconcentration ≤ 15 µg.L-1for Cruzeta, Timabúba e Dourados reservoirs. Boqueirão reservoir water achieved a turbidity of 10.3 NTU and had total phophorus concentration reduced to values below 50 µg L-1but clorophyll-aconcentration remained above 15 µg.L-1. The total phosphorus, turbidity and UV254removal efficiency for dose of 4 mg Al.L-1was significantly negatively correlated with the initial chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH (Sachet Sauce Packing Machinery for Honey Stick). The highest total phosphorus and turbidity removal were observed for chlorophyll-aconcentration range of 18.8-39.9 µg.L-1and pH range of 6.8-7.9. The highest UV254removal was observed for the same pH range but for even lower chlorophyll-aconcentration (18.8-27.3 µg.L-1).
Figure 2Removal efficiency (%) for total phosphorus (TP), turbidity (TURB), humic substances (UV254) and chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) in raw water from Dourados (DOU), Timbaúba (TIM), Boqueirão (BOQ), Cruzeta (CRU), Gargalheiras (GAR) and Passagem das Traíras (PT) reservoirs, after coagulation-flocculation with the dose of 4 mg Al L-1and 30 minutes of sedimentation.
Figure 3Correlations between chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH with total phosphorus (TP), turbidity and UV254removal efficiency (%) based on the dose of 4 mg Al L-1.
4. Discussion
In general,28dBi 1575.42MHz BNC Connector Active GPS Antenna, but its efficiency was affected by chlorophyll-aand humic substances concentration. We suggested that 4 mg Al.L-1is the best dose (better cost-benefit) to be applied in most of reservoirs tested. This dose changed the trophic state of water from eutrophic to oligo-mesotrophic conditions in Cruzeta, Timabúba e Dourados reservoirs and had intermediary effects on Boqueirão water in laboratory tests. The efficiency in total phosphorus removal is reported for in-lake PAC application (168cc Racing Go Kart for Sale Sx-G1101 (lxw) -1A with Bumpers Gc2008 for Sale;High Quality New Cold Steel Toilet Brush Holder with Small Bathroom Waste Bin with Natural Bamboo Lid;Custom Made Personalized Mini Pop Can Filling Machine;Lab Glass Slides Manufacturers Cheap Price). However,Morgan Carbon Brush/Carbon Brush for Forklift/Denso Window Motor Brush.
The evaluation of PAC performance was investigated in terms of removal efficiency of variables after settling time of thirty minutes. Low performances indicates problems in sedimentation which can caused by poor coagulation or flocculation. High chlorophyll-aconcentration,Plastic Slat / Plastic Leakage Dung Floor for Chicken House / Poultry Farm.China Manufacture 2mm3mm5mm Thickness Round Wall Mirror for Sale, turbidity and UV254removal efficiency are correlated with higher values in initial pH and chlorophyll-aconcentrations. Initial pH has been reported to affect coagulation performance of PAC (OEM Large Diameter Aluminum Curtain Wall for Building Material). In the maximal PAC performance pH was found to be around the neutral (Thermoplastic TPE Granules Making Machine for Grass Filling;Aroma Diffuser Cool Mist Ultrasonic Aromatherapy Humidifier). Coagulation is favorable for a pH range of 6.0-7.0 due to presence of positively charged Al species promoting flock formation (1390 Mixed CO2 Laser Cutting Machine for Wood Acrylic MDF Stainless Steel Carbon Steel Plywood Cut) which determines the coagulation performance (Bathroom Cabinets Vanity). The dose of 4 mg Al.L-1resulted in pH >8.0 in Gargalheiras and Passagem das Traíras water thereby making the coagulation difficult. It has been suggested that high alkaline waters requires a higher PAC dose to achieve pH values favorable to coagulation (Portable Solar Lantern with Built-in Solar Panel).
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In summary we consider PAC application a good restoration technique for Cruzeta, Timbaúba and Dourados reservoirs.20FT T11 T14 Transport Tank Container Motor Oil ISO Tank Container.
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