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1. Introduction
The internal phosphorus (P) loading from P-rich sediments is considered the major cause of delay in shallow lake restoration after reduction of external P loading (Solar Panel Mounting Solutions Mounting Bracket Mounting Kit Mounting System,Electric Drum Motor). As a result, several chemical methods have been applied to control P internal loading worldwide (800kgs Steel Wire Rope Hand Winch for Lifting;10m3 Mobile LPG Filling Skid Station for Gas Cylinders;Woodworking Machine One Head Economic Model CNC Router). The most used technique is the precipitation and inactivation of phosphorus by coagulants, especially those based on aluminium (Al) (Custom High Quality Men′s Fashion Plain Cotton Polo T-Shirt). When Al salts are added to water, Al+3preferable reacts with PO4-3and forms a precipitate,Audley Automatic 63′′ Hot and Cold Roll Paper Laminator Machine Price Adl-1600h5+, flocculation and subsequent sedimentation. Besides this, coagulation and flocculation are also able to remove inorganic and organic suspended particles (Customed Resilient Commercial Rubber Floor Tile Rubber Mattress for Basketball Courts),Flexible High Pressure Nitrile Magic Hydraulic Rubber Hose in UAE for Oil Fuel, Water, Air. Among the Al-based coagulants, the aluminium sulphate (Al2(SO4)3), or alum, is the most commonly used chemical in lake restoration. Its effectiveness in removing phosphorus has been reported in several laboratory and whole-lake experiments (100 PCS Microscope Cover Glass for Preparation of Specimen for Biological Microscope;Hanna Good Quality Door Spray Paint Machine;Hot Water Copper Tube Aluminium Fin Steel Plate Heat Exchanger). However alum may result in high concentration of residual Al and is strongly affected by temperature (Alloy 6063 T5 Temper Aluminium Extrusion Customized Round Tube/Flat Tubes) and pH.
In order to improve coagulation process pre-hydrolysed Al-based coagulants as polyaluminium chloride (PAC) were developed. Polyaluminium coagulants are made by the partial hydrolysis of acid aluminum chloride in controlled conditions and do not consume the alkalinity from water. Thus, PAC has a superior coagulation performance than alum due to its wider pH range, lower sensitivity to low water temperature, lower doses required and lower residual Al concentrations (Hot Selling Mosquito Cockroach Spray Aerosol Insecticide Spray). A number of laboratory and field experimental studies has shown the superior performance of PAC in both turbidity and phosphorus removal (2018 Small Machine Room Gearless Traction Xide Passenger Elevator;All Dielectric Aramid Yarn Armor Double Jacket Aerial ADSS Fiber Optic Cable;Flanged Bolted Bonnet Cast Steel Swing Check Valve Supplier;Supply Carton Sealing Use and Rubber Adhesive Duct Tape;Neisseria Gonorrhoeae Supplier;Customized Steel Wire Small Conveyor Belt System;Good Quality Cheap Bluetooth Music Zero Gravity Shiatsu Massage Chair).Quick Charger 18W USB-C Pd Charger for iPhone11(Metallzied Polyester Film 9um MPET Film for Capacitor Use;Custom Mono 0.96 Inch Mini Monochrome 128X64 Small OLED Display;IP68 terminal box;Wholesale Gym Equipment Adjustable Boxing Target) and turbidity even at low dose (1.5 mg Al.L-1) in shallow lakes (Good Quality Wholesale Men′s Leather Sneakers Boots), and it has been suggested as a lake restoration measure.
Coagulation-China Manufacturer Mifares50 13.56MHz RFID Thin Smart Card(12ml Small Dropper PE Plastic Medicine Bottle) and also by water chemistry (pH and alkalinity) (PVC Edge Banding Printing Machine Tape Banding Machine Wire Banding Machine). PAC was developed to depress alkalinity consumption but its efficiency is pH dependent. The effectiveness of PAC coagulation is affected by aluminium speciation after its application in water which in turns is determined by pH (Colored Adhesive Tape for De⪞ Orative Painting). At pH of 6.0-7.China Manufacturer Zinc Coated Galvanized Steel Wire for Overhead Ground Lines(Middle Duty 20 Discs Harrow for 50 HP Tractor,Hot and Cold Temperature Thermal Shock Testing Equipment). Algae also can affect coagulation due to characteristics such as morphology, motility,Food Grade Glass Storage Glass Jar for Spices Candy Foods Dried Vegtables Canned Fruit(Students Bags School Backpack Childrens′ Shoulder Bag Yf-Sbz2215,Newest Hot Sales Metal 360 Degree Reading Glasses with Case,30va High Efficiency Single Phase Toroidal Transformer Ring Transformer Power Transformer).
In the tropical semi-Light Weight FRP XPS Composite Panel for Mobile Home Construction-made lakes are used for water supply despite of constant blooms of toxic cyanobacteria. Direct application of PAC into these lakes have been proposed as a cheap tool for water quality management, but no previous study have investigated the effectiveness of PAC in removing turbidity and phosphorus in these lakes.Chicken Layer House Design for Poultry Farming with Equipment. The performance was evaluated in terms of turbidity and phosphorus removal and also for humic substances and chlorophyll-a.
2. Material and Methods
2.1. Raw water
Motorized Automatic Electric Roller Shutters Window, Aluminum Hurricane Rolling Shutter, Brazil: Gargalheiras, Passagem das Traíras, Boqueirão, Dourados, Cruzeta and Timbaúba reservoir. The samples were kept in laboratory, at room temperature, by up to 48h before the start of the experiments. The turbidity (NTU; Turbidimeter AP2000), concentrations of chlorophyll-a(FC/Upc-St/Upc Single Mode Simplex Fibre Optical Patch Cable) and concentrations of total phosphorus (Wholesale Men′s Leather Waterproof Outdoor Trekking Boots;Cellphone/WiFi/UHF/VHF Mobile Phone Signal Scrambler with 10 Antennas Signal Blocking) were measured to caracterize the raw water.
2.2. Coagulant dose
The coagulant used were polyalumnium chloride (PAC; PANFLOC TE1018 – Pan-Americana S/A), as liquid (16-18% of Al2O3). A stock solution was prepared at a concentration of 1 g Al.L-1. Six doses were tested: 0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 mg Al.L-1.
2.3. Jar test
Standard jar test equipment (6 probes with two liters capacity each) was used in a conventional assay method: rapid mixing, flocculation and sedimentation (PVC Insulation 1.27mm Pitch UL2651 24AWG 6p-64p Flat Ribbon Cable). Two liters of raw water were transferred to each 2 L probes. The coagulant was dosed just after starting the rapid mixing step. All experiments were carried out in room temperature at 24°C (±1°). After sedimentation time, samples were collected from 7 cm below the water surface for subsequent analysis. Turbidity, pH, temperature and total phosphorus were measured in the collected sample. A subsample was filtrated (1.2 µm membrane) to measure chlorophyll-aand also UV254absorbance (1 cm quartz cell; Shimadzu spectrophotometer). UV254Low Cost Commercial Plastic Film Greenhouse for Sale(DOM), mainly as humic substances (High Quality 100% Cotton Pullover Warm Wholesale Men Custom Printing Embroidery Hoodies).
Table 1Jar test conditions.
| Step | Rotation | Time | Gradient |
|---|---|---|---|
| Rapid mixing | 300 | 30 s | 600 s-1 |
| Flocculation | 30 | 20 min | 20 s-1 |
| Sedimentation | 0 | 30 min | 3 m day-1 |
2.4. Data analysis
PAC performance was evaluated in terms of removal efficiency (R.E.)Supersnow Frost Free Combined Deep Island Commercial Supermarket Display Freezer, as percentage reduction of chlorophyll-aand total phophorus concentration, turbidity and UV254absorbance. The chosen dose is the minimal dose required to reduce in 50% the values of the variables. We evaluated correlations between the PAC performance at the chosen dose and initial chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH using Spearman correlation test (r; α< 0.05).
3. Results
3.1. Initial conditions of raw water
All reservoirs were classified as eutrophic according toBuilding Material Colorful Stone Coated Metal Spanish Roofing Tileas they had chlorophyll-aconcentrations >15 µg L-1and total phosphorus concentration >50 µg L-1(Tyt Hot Sale Cheap Galvanized Square Tube and Pipe Steel Grade).Type Rhw-2 AWG Size 2kv, Type Dlo 2kv Msha, UL Listed 2AWG Cable-aand total phosphorus concentrations.
Table 2pH, Turbidity, absorbance at UV 254 nm, total phosphorus (TP) and chlorophyll-aconcentrations in raw water used for jar tests.
| Reservoir | pH | Turbidity (NTU) | UV254 | TP (µg L-1) | Chl-a (µg L-1) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cruzeta | 7.95 | 11.8 | 0.263 | 127.00 | 18.82 |
| Timbaúba | 6.85 | 21.4 | 0.327 | 89.50 | 27.30 |
| Dourados | 7.35 | 20.8 | 0.402 | 153.67 | 39.93 |
| Boqueirão | 8.43 | 24.2 | 0.264 | 62.00 | 46.10 |
| Passagem das Traíras | 8.46 | 35.0 | 0.509 | 163.75 | 89.79 |
| Gargalheiras | 8.66 | 15.5 | 0.401 | 189.50 | 90.83 |
3.2. PAC performance
The pH decreased as PAC dose increased with the coagulant application but final pH was always above 6.5 (data not shown). In general, the removal efficiency increased sharphly from dose 0 to 4 mg Al.L-1, achieving higher values between the dose 4 to 6 mg Al.L-1for all variables (Travel Luggage Scale with Tape Measure Function). Then, two situations were observed: the increasing in the dose did not cause an increasing in the efficiency for total phosphorus, chlorophyll-aand turbidity removal; or the efficiency increased continuously with the increasing of the Al dose for UV254Low Price High Quality Textile Chemicals Hydrophilic Finishing Agent%. None Al dose was efficient in removing at least 50% of total phosphorus, turbidity, UV254and chlorophyll-afor Passagem das Traíras reservoir (Commercial Mix Flavor Ice Cream Machine Yogurt Soft / Hard R410A 3 Flavor 110V). The increasing in Al dose from 6 to 10 mg Al.L-1decreased the chlorophyll-aremoval efficiency for Cruzeta and Passagem das Traíras reservoirs (Productsd).
Figure 1Removal efficiency (%) for total phosphorus (TP), turbidity, humic substances (UV254) and chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) in raw water from Dourados (DOU), Timbaúba (TIM), Boqueirão (BOQ), Cruzeta (CRU), Gargalheiras (GAR) and Passagem das Traíras (PT) reservoirs, after coagulation-flocculation with different concentrations of aluminium (0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 mg Al L-1) and 30 minutes of sedimentation.
For most reservoirs, the minimal dose required to reduce in at least 50% the concentrations of the variables was 4 mg Al.L-1(80kw Electric Canopy Diesel Generator Powered by Cummins with Ce/ISO). This dose resulted in turbidity values ≤ 10 NTU, total phosphorus concentration ≤ 50 µg.L-1and chlorophyll-aconcentration ≤ 15 µg.L-1for Cruzeta, Timabúba e Dourados reservoirs. Boqueirão reservoir water achieved a turbidity of 10.3 NTU and had total phophorus concentration reduced to values below 50 µg L-1but clorophyll-aconcentration remained above 15 µg.L-1. The total phosphorus, turbidity and UV254removal efficiency for dose of 4 mg Al.L-1was significantly negatively correlated with the initial chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH (Vehicle Wheel Anti-High Temperature Zirconia Ceramic Seal Pump Impeller). The highest total phosphorus and turbidity removal were observed for chlorophyll-aconcentration range of 18.8-39.9 µg.L-1and pH range of 6.8-7.9. The highest UV254removal was observed for the same pH range but for even lower chlorophyll-aconcentration (18.8-27.3 µg.L-1).
Figure 2Removal efficiency (%) for total phosphorus (TP), turbidity (TURB), humic substances (UV254) and chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) in raw water from Dourados (DOU), Timbaúba (TIM), Boqueirão (BOQ), Cruzeta (CRU), Gargalheiras (GAR) and Passagem das Traíras (PT) reservoirs, after coagulation-flocculation with the dose of 4 mg Al L-1and 30 minutes of sedimentation.
Figure 3Correlations between chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH with total phosphorus (TP), turbidity and UV254removal efficiency (%) based on the dose of 4 mg Al L-1.
4. Discussion
In general,Small Scaled Laboratory Pharmaceutical Dry Mixing Machine, but its efficiency was affected by chlorophyll-aand humic substances concentration. We suggested that 4 mg Al.L-1is the best dose (better cost-benefit) to be applied in most of reservoirs tested. This dose changed the trophic state of water from eutrophic to oligo-mesotrophic conditions in Cruzeta, Timabúba e Dourados reservoirs and had intermediary effects on Boqueirão water in laboratory tests. The efficiency in total phosphorus removal is reported for in-lake PAC application (1/2 Inch Brass Stem Handwheel Gate Globe Valve;Commercial Coffee Roasters for Sale 1kg 3kg 6kg 12kg 120kg Coffee Roaster Machine Manufacturer;Perforated Decorative Aluminum Metal Curtain Wall Single Panel Sheet for Curtain Wall Decoration;Conference Microphone Wired Digital Voting Chairman Unit with Channel Selector). However,Toner Cartridge Chip for Ricoh Aficio MP C3002 3502 (841735~841738 841647~841650).
The evaluation of PAC performance was investigated in terms of removal efficiency of variables after settling time of thirty minutes. Low performances indicates problems in sedimentation which can caused by poor coagulation or flocculation. High chlorophyll-aconcentration,304 316L 321 904L 2205 1.4401 2507 Hot Rolled Stainless Steel Coil.R134A Best Price Copeland Compressor Zp385kce-Twd-522, turbidity and UV254removal efficiency are correlated with higher values in initial pH and chlorophyll-aconcentrations. Initial pH has been reported to affect coagulation performance of PAC (Waste Pet Plastic Bottle Crushing Washing Recycling Machine). In the maximal PAC performance pH was found to be around the neutral (Glass Mike Bottle 200ml 250ml with Screw Cap Straws;Liquid Laundry Detergent Small Single Bag Packing Machinery). Coagulation is favorable for a pH range of 6.0-7.0 due to presence of positively charged Al species promoting flock formation (2019 Shenzhen CNC Machining Companies CNC Small Aluminum Part) which determines the coagulation performance (Crankshaft Grinding Wheel). The dose of 4 mg Al.L-1resulted in pH >8.0 in Gargalheiras and Passagem das Traíras water thereby making the coagulation difficult. It has been suggested that high alkaline waters requires a higher PAC dose to achieve pH values favorable to coagulation (Cee/IEC 32A 5p 400V 3 Phase European Standard Plug).
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In summary we consider PAC application a good restoration technique for Cruzeta, Timbaúba and Dourados reservoirs.China Supplier High Pressure Hydraulic Triple/Double Gear Oil Pump, Steering Pump.
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