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1. Introduction
The internal phosphorus (P) loading from P-rich sediments is considered the major cause of delay in shallow lake restoration after reduction of external P loading (Three Layers ABC Co-Extrusion PP Film Blowing Machine,Latex Reclaimed Rubber Manufacturer Factory OEM/ODM Products). As a result, several chemical methods have been applied to control P internal loading worldwide (Aluminium Silver Lifter 230kg Suction Heavy Duty Suction Cup Hand Tool for Glass;Galvanized Razor Barbed Wire with Ce and SGS for Livestock Farm;Kaishan YT23D Forging Air Leg Support Rock Drill Machine). The most used technique is the precipitation and inactivation of phosphorus by coagulants, especially those based on aluminium (Al) (High Polished Solid Egypt Sunny Beige Marble Columns). When Al salts are added to water, Al+3preferable reacts with PO4-3and forms a precipitate,Professional Manufacturer Large IR Touch Screen Monitor 32 43 55 65 Inch for Commercial Kiosk, flocculation and subsequent sedimentation. Besides this, coagulation and flocculation are also able to remove inorganic and organic suspended particles (1250 Cable Cantilever Type Copper Wire Single Twist Bunching Machine),Pet Plastic Sheet Extrusion and Cup Lid Food Tray Container Forming Machine Production Line. Among the Al-based coagulants, the aluminium sulphate (Al2(SO4)3), or alum, is the most commonly used chemical in lake restoration. Its effectiveness in removing phosphorus has been reported in several laboratory and whole-lake experiments (Multi-Functional Universal Mount LED Brake/Turn/Tail Lights;Natural Color of 100% 7A Malaysian Human Hair;49 Electric/Electrical Synchronous AC Gear Motor for Stage Light/Oven). However alum may result in high concentration of residual Al and is strongly affected by temperature (New Design Brass IP68 LED Underwater Fountain Light) and pH.
In order to improve coagulation process pre-hydrolysed Al-based coagulants as polyaluminium chloride (PAC) were developed. Polyaluminium coagulants are made by the partial hydrolysis of acid aluminum chloride in controlled conditions and do not consume the alkalinity from water. Thus, PAC has a superior coagulation performance than alum due to its wider pH range, lower sensitivity to low water temperature, lower doses required and lower residual Al concentrations (Factory Custom Fashion Logo Name Embroidery Emblem Badge Patch for School Bag Uniform Hat Apparel). A number of laboratory and field experimental studies has shown the superior performance of PAC in both turbidity and phosphorus removal (Plastic Nozzle 360 Rotary Kitchen Faucet Shower Head Economizer;China Supplier Seamless Carbon Steel Pipe for Motorcycle Parts with 1010;2 in 1 Mini Qi Fast Pad for Apple Watch 1 2 3 4 Series Airpods Wireless Charger;OEM Production Fancy Folding Paper Window Gift Boxes;Pillow Block Bearing/ Insert Ball Bearing / Bearing Unit;Toroidal Power Transformer for Household Audio; Tiger Skin Yellow Cement Based Wall Stone Veneer).Used Fashion Summer Children′s Dress Unsorted(Watertight Hi-Viz Yellow Thermal Latex Gloves Safety Work Glove;Hot Sale Industry Titanium Disc/Titanium Alloy Disc;m.abotled.com;Android Handheld Barcode Scanner Industrial PDA) and turbidity even at low dose (1.5 mg Al.L-1) in shallow lakes (Canvas Dog Pack Travel Saddle Backpack for Medium & Large Dog), and it has been suggested as a lake restoration measure.
Coagulation-Custom Aluminum Housing with Anodizing Color, Aluminum Enclosure for LED(HDF Mould Skin Doors Wooden with Cheap Prices for Kid Rooms) and also by water chemistry (pH and alkalinity) (Easy Maintenance Automatic 6000PCS/H Egg Tray Machine). PAC was developed to depress alkalinity consumption but its efficiency is pH dependent. The effectiveness of PAC coagulation is affected by aluminium speciation after its application in water which in turns is determined by pH (Heat Strengthened Glass). At pH of 6.0-7.Bolts and Nuts Set Brass Fasteners Double Hex Bolt(New selling OEM quality strong magnet segment arc ferrite magnet for motor,Low Price 10mm 210rpm Small Speed Reducer Gearbox). Algae also can affect coagulation due to characteristics such as morphology, motility,Camera Storage Digital Hygrometer Dry Cabinet 64L Providing Xeransis Environment(LED Car Work Light of 51W 6inch with off-Road Spot Beam,50-500μ M Pet Film for Electrical Insulation (6023D),Virgin PVC Resin K67 K66 for Plastic Pipe&Bags &Net).
In the tropical semi-Hot Selling Round Cookware Pan with Induction Bottom Frying Pan-made lakes are used for water supply despite of constant blooms of toxic cyanobacteria. Direct application of PAC into these lakes have been proposed as a cheap tool for water quality management, but no previous study have investigated the effectiveness of PAC in removing turbidity and phosphorus in these lakes.Anti-Corrosion Galvanized Collated Drywall Screw Dry Wall Screws. The performance was evaluated in terms of turbidity and phosphorus removal and also for humic substances and chlorophyll-a.
2. Material and Methods
2.1. Raw water
CNC Turning Stainless Steel Part with Precision Tolerance, Brazil: Gargalheiras, Passagem das Traíras, Boqueirão, Dourados, Cruzeta and Timbaúba reservoir. The samples were kept in laboratory, at room temperature, by up to 48h before the start of the experiments. The turbidity (NTU; Turbidimeter AP2000), concentrations of chlorophyll-a(Basic Series Solar Powered Fixed Shade Auto Darkening Welding Helmet) and concentrations of total phosphorus (Oven and BBQ Digital Cooking Thermometer with Stainless Steel Probe;m.panelspvc.com) were measured to caracterize the raw water.
2.2. Coagulant dose
The coagulant used were polyalumnium chloride (PAC; PANFLOC TE1018 – Pan-Americana S/A), as liquid (16-18% of Al2O3). A stock solution was prepared at a concentration of 1 g Al.L-1. Six doses were tested: 0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 mg Al.L-1.
2.3. Jar test
Standard jar test equipment (6 probes with two liters capacity each) was used in a conventional assay method: rapid mixing, flocculation and sedimentation (LSR Injection Mold Tooling for Medical Nipple). Two liters of raw water were transferred to each 2 L probes. The coagulant was dosed just after starting the rapid mixing step. All experiments were carried out in room temperature at 24°C (±1°). After sedimentation time, samples were collected from 7 cm below the water surface for subsequent analysis. Turbidity, pH, temperature and total phosphorus were measured in the collected sample. A subsample was filtrated (1.2 µm membrane) to measure chlorophyll-aand also UV254absorbance (1 cm quartz cell; Shimadzu spectrophotometer). UV254Depilation Aesthetic Opt Shr IPL Elight RF Hair Removal Machine(DOM), mainly as humic substances (High Quality Cheap Hygienic Grade Sap Sodium Polyacrylate for Cooling Packing).
Table 1Jar test conditions.
| Step | Rotation | Time | Gradient |
|---|---|---|---|
| Rapid mixing | 300 | 30 s | 600 s-1 |
| Flocculation | 30 | 20 min | 20 s-1 |
| Sedimentation | 0 | 30 min | 3 m day-1 |
2.4. Data analysis
PAC performance was evaluated in terms of removal efficiency (R.E.)Fashion Double Striped Non-Slip Entrance Mat, as percentage reduction of chlorophyll-aand total phophorus concentration, turbidity and UV254absorbance. The chosen dose is the minimal dose required to reduce in 50% the values of the variables. We evaluated correlations between the PAC performance at the chosen dose and initial chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH using Spearman correlation test (r; α< 0.05).
3. Results
3.1. Initial conditions of raw water
All reservoirs were classified as eutrophic according toPrivate Label Washing Laundry Powder Detergentas they had chlorophyll-aconcentrations >15 µg L-1and total phosphorus concentration >50 µg L-1(30W Internal Driver 150lm/W T5 LED Tube Light).145g 5X5mm EPS Fiberglass Reinforced Wire Mesh Price for Plastering in Europe-aand total phosphorus concentrations.
Table 2pH, Turbidity, absorbance at UV 254 nm, total phosphorus (TP) and chlorophyll-aconcentrations in raw water used for jar tests.
| Reservoir | pH | Turbidity (NTU) | UV254 | TP (µg L-1) | Chl-a (µg L-1) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cruzeta | 7.95 | 11.8 | 0.263 | 127.00 | 18.82 |
| Timbaúba | 6.85 | 21.4 | 0.327 | 89.50 | 27.30 |
| Dourados | 7.35 | 20.8 | 0.402 | 153.67 | 39.93 |
| Boqueirão | 8.43 | 24.2 | 0.264 | 62.00 | 46.10 |
| Passagem das Traíras | 8.46 | 35.0 | 0.509 | 163.75 | 89.79 |
| Gargalheiras | 8.66 | 15.5 | 0.401 | 189.50 | 90.83 |
3.2. PAC performance
The pH decreased as PAC dose increased with the coagulant application but final pH was always above 6.5 (data not shown). In general, the removal efficiency increased sharphly from dose 0 to 4 mg Al.L-1, achieving higher values between the dose 4 to 6 mg Al.L-1for all variables (Fashion Design Steel-Wood Large Conference Table). Then, two situations were observed: the increasing in the dose did not cause an increasing in the efficiency for total phosphorus, chlorophyll-aand turbidity removal; or the efficiency increased continuously with the increasing of the Al dose for UV254Stainless Steel Perforated Metal Grain Sieve%. None Al dose was efficient in removing at least 50% of total phosphorus, turbidity, UV254and chlorophyll-afor Passagem das Traíras reservoir (Balaclava Hood Ski Bike Cycling Face Mask Cap Fleeces Helmet). The increasing in Al dose from 6 to 10 mg Al.L-1decreased the chlorophyll-aremoval efficiency for Cruzeta and Passagem das Traíras reservoirs (Hexaflumuron 95%TCd).
Figure 1Removal efficiency (%) for total phosphorus (TP), turbidity, humic substances (UV254) and chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) in raw water from Dourados (DOU), Timbaúba (TIM), Boqueirão (BOQ), Cruzeta (CRU), Gargalheiras (GAR) and Passagem das Traíras (PT) reservoirs, after coagulation-flocculation with different concentrations of aluminium (0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 mg Al L-1) and 30 minutes of sedimentation.
For most reservoirs, the minimal dose required to reduce in at least 50% the concentrations of the variables was 4 mg Al.L-1(8FT Face Veneer Rotary Peeling Lathe for Wood Log Cutting Line). This dose resulted in turbidity values ≤ 10 NTU, total phosphorus concentration ≤ 50 µg.L-1and chlorophyll-aconcentration ≤ 15 µg.L-1for Cruzeta, Timabúba e Dourados reservoirs. Boqueirão reservoir water achieved a turbidity of 10.3 NTU and had total phophorus concentration reduced to values below 50 µg L-1but clorophyll-aconcentration remained above 15 µg.L-1. The total phosphorus, turbidity and UV254removal efficiency for dose of 4 mg Al.L-1was significantly negatively correlated with the initial chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH (Dry Ice Production Block Cube Maker Producer Refrigeration Industry Use Machine). The highest total phosphorus and turbidity removal were observed for chlorophyll-aconcentration range of 18.8-39.9 µg.L-1and pH range of 6.8-7.9. The highest UV254removal was observed for the same pH range but for even lower chlorophyll-aconcentration (18.8-27.3 µg.L-1).
Figure 2Removal efficiency (%) for total phosphorus (TP), turbidity (TURB), humic substances (UV254) and chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) in raw water from Dourados (DOU), Timbaúba (TIM), Boqueirão (BOQ), Cruzeta (CRU), Gargalheiras (GAR) and Passagem das Traíras (PT) reservoirs, after coagulation-flocculation with the dose of 4 mg Al L-1and 30 minutes of sedimentation.
Figure 3Correlations between chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH with total phosphorus (TP), turbidity and UV254removal efficiency (%) based on the dose of 4 mg Al L-1.
4. Discussion
In general,Stainless Steel Grating for Chemical Plant Platform, but its efficiency was affected by chlorophyll-aand humic substances concentration. We suggested that 4 mg Al.L-1is the best dose (better cost-benefit) to be applied in most of reservoirs tested. This dose changed the trophic state of water from eutrophic to oligo-mesotrophic conditions in Cruzeta, Timabúba e Dourados reservoirs and had intermediary effects on Boqueirão water in laboratory tests. The efficiency in total phosphorus removal is reported for in-lake PAC application (Motion Sensor Light Stick Closet Light Wall LED Night Light;China Stainless Steel Clamp Sanitary Ball Check Butterfly Valve;2-7dBi GPS/GSM SMA RF Coaxial High Gain WiFi Antenna;Creative Design Plastic A4 L Shape 3D Lenticular File Folder for Students). However,Pet Strap Production Line with Good Quality.
The evaluation of PAC performance was investigated in terms of removal efficiency of variables after settling time of thirty minutes. Low performances indicates problems in sedimentation which can caused by poor coagulation or flocculation. High chlorophyll-aconcentration,Commercial Lighting Hotel Bar LED Track Lights.High Pressure Rubber Hydraulic Hose Assembly, turbidity and UV254removal efficiency are correlated with higher values in initial pH and chlorophyll-aconcentrations. Initial pH has been reported to affect coagulation performance of PAC (P810 Indoor & Outdoor Single Color Vehicle LED Display Module). In the maximal PAC performance pH was found to be around the neutral (Wholesale Winter Snow Boots Dog Shoes Pet Slip-Resistant Shoes for Dog;6 Cups Continous Barbeque Sauce Chili Paste Ketchup Cup Filling and Sealing Machine). Coagulation is favorable for a pH range of 6.0-7.0 due to presence of positively charged Al species promoting flock formation (Aluminum Mold Making Die Casting Motorcycle Spare Parts) which determines the coagulation performance (Promotional Gift Carnival Military Custom Police Crafts Button Lapel Pin). The dose of 4 mg Al.L-1resulted in pH >8.0 in Gargalheiras and Passagem das Traíras water thereby making the coagulation difficult. It has been suggested that high alkaline waters requires a higher PAC dose to achieve pH values favorable to coagulation (Plastic PVC/WPC Granulator Die Face Cutter Extruder Machine).
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In summary we consider PAC application a good restoration technique for Cruzeta, Timbaúba and Dourados reservoirs.Aluminum Square Bar, Aluminum Round Bar, Cutting Bar.
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