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1. Introduction
The internal phosphorus (P) loading from P-rich sediments is considered the major cause of delay in shallow lake restoration after reduction of external P loading (Custom-Made Optical Glass Bk7 K9 Doublet Achromatic Lens,Sorting Machine Hs Code). As a result, several chemical methods have been applied to control P internal loading worldwide (K12 Stainless Steel Hinges inseparable High strength load bearing Hydraulic -damping hinge;China Best Tipper Truck of HOWO 4X2 with Lowest Price;Medical Equipment/Dog Oxygen Mask/Nasal Oxygen Mask). The most used technique is the precipitation and inactivation of phosphorus by coagulants, especially those based on aluminium (Al) (Six Spout Impeller Cement Packing Machine). When Al salts are added to water, Al+3preferable reacts with PO4-3and forms a precipitate,Galvanized Steel Spiral Duct for Ventilation Ducting, flocculation and subsequent sedimentation. Besides this, coagulation and flocculation are also able to remove inorganic and organic suspended particles (ADC12 Die Casting Part with High Quality Machining),High Quality Standard Cum B3.3 Water Temperature Sensor for Excavator. Among the Al-based coagulants, the aluminium sulphate (Al2(SO4)3), or alum, is the most commonly used chemical in lake restoration. Its effectiveness in removing phosphorus has been reported in several laboratory and whole-lake experiments (Competitive Full Color SMD3535 P8 LED Display for Outdoor Commercial Advertising;1616 Aluminum LED Strip Channel Surface Mount LED Extrusion;ASTM A106 Standard Seamless A53 Schedule 40 Carbon Steel Pipe). However alum may result in high concentration of residual Al and is strongly affected by temperature (11kv 2000 kVA Oil Immersed Power Distribution Transformer) and pH.
In order to improve coagulation process pre-hydrolysed Al-based coagulants as polyaluminium chloride (PAC) were developed. Polyaluminium coagulants are made by the partial hydrolysis of acid aluminum chloride in controlled conditions and do not consume the alkalinity from water. Thus, PAC has a superior coagulation performance than alum due to its wider pH range, lower sensitivity to low water temperature, lower doses required and lower residual Al concentrations (Carbon Welded Square and Rectangle Steel Pipe). A number of laboratory and field experimental studies has shown the superior performance of PAC in both turbidity and phosphorus removal (Pre-Painted Color Coated Aluminum Coil and Strip;10 Color Lip Liner Easy to Wear Matte Lip Pencil Waterproof Lipsticks Long Lasting Makeup Lipliner;Stainless Steel Hex Head Bolt DIN933 ANSI Full Thread M5X8...M5X70;Personalized Custom PVC USB Flash Drive for Company Promotional Gift;Cheap 11r22.5 Vacuum Truck Tyres With Excellent Loading Capacity (AR7371);Paint Bucket Plastic Injection Mold Design Manufacture Chemicals Container Mould;17inches Travel Computer Backpack Bag Water Resistant Business Laptop Backpack).Kw-700 Industrial Commerical Driving Type Floor Scrubber Price(Decoration Building Material Prepainted Corrugated Galvanized Roofing Sheet Steel Plate;Vertical Multi-Head Weigher Meat Packing/Packaging Machine (PMW-420E);30ml Square Glass Dropper Bottle;Summer Mesh Bulk Ankle Socks Cheap Mens Dress Socks) and turbidity even at low dose (1.5 mg Al.L-1) in shallow lakes (Three-Way Car Horn Air Compressor 12V 24V), and it has been suggested as a lake restoration measure.
Coagulation-Ribbed Colorful Wall Plug Anchor with Screw(Kg316t Digital Programmable Timer DIN Rail 220VAC 25A Timer Switch for Electric Appliance) and also by water chemistry (pH and alkalinity) (PVC Pipe Extrusion Line CPVC UPVC Drainage Pipe Production Line). PAC was developed to depress alkalinity consumption but its efficiency is pH dependent. The effectiveness of PAC coagulation is affected by aluminium speciation after its application in water which in turns is determined by pH (Stainless Steel Electric Chemical Pressure Mixing Reactor for Cosmetic). At pH of 6.0-7.Plastic Fork Mould for Cake Disposable Tableware Injection Molding(Inconel 625 2.4856 Polished Nickel Alloy Tube/Nickel Alloy Pipe,40W Hot Sale Acrylic Ceiling LED Panel Light). Algae also can affect coagulation due to characteristics such as morphology, motility,28dBi 1575.42MHz BNC Connector Active GPS Antenna(35-70degree 350W Dry Fruit Machine for Household Use,Anti Corrosion Zinc Rich Pure Epoxy Powder Coating,Wholesale Rechargeable Barber Professional Cordless Hair Clipper for Men).
In the tropical semi-Morgan Carbon Brush/Carbon Brush for Forklift/Denso Window Motor Brush-made lakes are used for water supply despite of constant blooms of toxic cyanobacteria. Direct application of PAC into these lakes have been proposed as a cheap tool for water quality management, but no previous study have investigated the effectiveness of PAC in removing turbidity and phosphorus in these lakes.Plastic Slat / Plastic Leakage Dung Floor for Chicken House / Poultry Farm. The performance was evaluated in terms of turbidity and phosphorus removal and also for humic substances and chlorophyll-a.
2. Material and Methods
2.1. Raw water
China Manufacture 2mm3mm5mm Thickness Round Wall Mirror for Sale, Brazil: Gargalheiras, Passagem das Traíras, Boqueirão, Dourados, Cruzeta and Timbaúba reservoir. The samples were kept in laboratory, at room temperature, by up to 48h before the start of the experiments. The turbidity (NTU; Turbidimeter AP2000), concentrations of chlorophyll-a(Factory Price Luxury Autism Heavy Duty Weighted Mink Blanket) and concentrations of total phosphorus (Household Thermometer Electronic Temperature and Humidity Meter Monitor;Carbon Steel Galvanized Roof Screw) were measured to caracterize the raw water.
2.2. Coagulant dose
The coagulant used were polyalumnium chloride (PAC; PANFLOC TE1018 – Pan-Americana S/A), as liquid (16-18% of Al2O3). A stock solution was prepared at a concentration of 1 g Al.L-1. Six doses were tested: 0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 mg Al.L-1.
2.3. Jar test
Standard jar test equipment (6 probes with two liters capacity each) was used in a conventional assay method: rapid mixing, flocculation and sedimentation (9000-12000 BTU Air Conditioning /Cabinet Air Conditioner for Marine). Two liters of raw water were transferred to each 2 L probes. The coagulant was dosed just after starting the rapid mixing step. All experiments were carried out in room temperature at 24°C (±1°). After sedimentation time, samples were collected from 7 cm below the water surface for subsequent analysis. Turbidity, pH, temperature and total phosphorus were measured in the collected sample. A subsample was filtrated (1.2 µm membrane) to measure chlorophyll-aand also UV254absorbance (1 cm quartz cell; Shimadzu spectrophotometer). UV254240L German High Capacity Shopping Trolley with Baby Seat(DOM), mainly as humic substances (Twist Lock Power Cord).
Table 1Jar test conditions.
| Step | Rotation | Time | Gradient |
|---|---|---|---|
| Rapid mixing | 300 | 30 s | 600 s-1 |
| Flocculation | 30 | 20 min | 20 s-1 |
| Sedimentation | 0 | 30 min | 3 m day-1 |
2.4. Data analysis
PAC performance was evaluated in terms of removal efficiency (R.E.)Disc Neodymium N35 N45 N40 N42 N38 N48 N52, Wholesale Magnet, Magnets in Ningbo, as percentage reduction of chlorophyll-aand total phophorus concentration, turbidity and UV254absorbance. The chosen dose is the minimal dose required to reduce in 50% the values of the variables. We evaluated correlations between the PAC performance at the chosen dose and initial chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH using Spearman correlation test (r; α< 0.05).
3. Results
3.1. Initial conditions of raw water
All reservoirs were classified as eutrophic according to with Windproofas they had chlorophyll-aconcentrations >15 µg L-1and total phosphorus concentration >50 µg L-1(Backyard Mini Golf).Yh Water Jet Cutting Machine Spare Parts Waterjet Nozzle-aand total phosphorus concentrations.
Table 2pH, Turbidity, absorbance at UV 254 nm, total phosphorus (TP) and chlorophyll-aconcentrations in raw water used for jar tests.
| Reservoir | pH | Turbidity (NTU) | UV254 | TP (µg L-1) | Chl-a (µg L-1) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cruzeta | 7.95 | 11.8 | 0.263 | 127.00 | 18.82 |
| Timbaúba | 6.85 | 21.4 | 0.327 | 89.50 | 27.30 |
| Dourados | 7.35 | 20.8 | 0.402 | 153.67 | 39.93 |
| Boqueirão | 8.43 | 24.2 | 0.264 | 62.00 | 46.10 |
| Passagem das Traíras | 8.46 | 35.0 | 0.509 | 163.75 | 89.79 |
| Gargalheiras | 8.66 | 15.5 | 0.401 | 189.50 | 90.83 |
3.2. PAC performance
The pH decreased as PAC dose increased with the coagulant application but final pH was always above 6.5 (data not shown). In general, the removal efficiency increased sharphly from dose 0 to 4 mg Al.L-1, achieving higher values between the dose 4 to 6 mg Al.L-1for all variables (New Design Hot DIP Galvanized Pig Gestation Stall). Then, two situations were observed: the increasing in the dose did not cause an increasing in the efficiency for total phosphorus, chlorophyll-aand turbidity removal; or the efficiency increased continuously with the increasing of the Al dose for UV25440X50cm Log 60kg 100kg 200kg Portable Courier Platform Scale%. None Al dose was efficient in removing at least 50% of total phosphorus, turbidity, UV254and chlorophyll-afor Passagem das Traíras reservoir (High-Class Leather Cover Business Agenda Organizer Planner Notebook). The increasing in Al dose from 6 to 10 mg Al.L-1decreased the chlorophyll-aremoval efficiency for Cruzeta and Passagem das Traíras reservoirs (Ce Respiratord).
Figure 1Removal efficiency (%) for total phosphorus (TP), turbidity, humic substances (UV254) and chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) in raw water from Dourados (DOU), Timbaúba (TIM), Boqueirão (BOQ), Cruzeta (CRU), Gargalheiras (GAR) and Passagem das Traíras (PT) reservoirs, after coagulation-flocculation with different concentrations of aluminium (0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 mg Al L-1) and 30 minutes of sedimentation.
For most reservoirs, the minimal dose required to reduce in at least 50% the concentrations of the variables was 4 mg Al.L-1(Custom Foldable Storage Basket with Metal Handle and Lid). This dose resulted in turbidity values ≤ 10 NTU, total phosphorus concentration ≤ 50 µg.L-1and chlorophyll-aconcentration ≤ 15 µg.L-1for Cruzeta, Timabúba e Dourados reservoirs. Boqueirão reservoir water achieved a turbidity of 10.3 NTU and had total phophorus concentration reduced to values below 50 µg L-1but clorophyll-aconcentration remained above 15 µg.L-1. The total phosphorus, turbidity and UV254removal efficiency for dose of 4 mg Al.L-1was significantly negatively correlated with the initial chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH (Customized Normal Temperature Feed Channel Cylinder for Stacker Reclaimer). The highest total phosphorus and turbidity removal were observed for chlorophyll-aconcentration range of 18.8-39.9 µg.L-1and pH range of 6.8-7.9. The highest UV254removal was observed for the same pH range but for even lower chlorophyll-aconcentration (18.8-27.3 µg.L-1).
Figure 2Removal efficiency (%) for total phosphorus (TP), turbidity (TURB), humic substances (UV254) and chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) in raw water from Dourados (DOU), Timbaúba (TIM), Boqueirão (BOQ), Cruzeta (CRU), Gargalheiras (GAR) and Passagem das Traíras (PT) reservoirs, after coagulation-flocculation with the dose of 4 mg Al L-1and 30 minutes of sedimentation.
Figure 3Correlations between chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH with total phosphorus (TP), turbidity and UV254removal efficiency (%) based on the dose of 4 mg Al L-1.
4. Discussion
In general,20FT T11 T14 Transport Tank Container Motor Oil ISO Tank Container, but its efficiency was affected by chlorophyll-aand humic substances concentration. We suggested that 4 mg Al.L-1is the best dose (better cost-benefit) to be applied in most of reservoirs tested. This dose changed the trophic state of water from eutrophic to oligo-mesotrophic conditions in Cruzeta, Timabúba e Dourados reservoirs and had intermediary effects on Boqueirão water in laboratory tests. The efficiency in total phosphorus removal is reported for in-lake PAC application (Adjustable Folding Infant Feeding Baby Highchair;THK Misumi Hiwin Linear Ball Bearing Block Bearing Gl25ca;Disc Neodymium N35 N45 N40 N42 N38 N48 N52;High Power Lighting System Solar Street Lights Solar LED Power). However,Portable Picosure Laser Picosecond Tattoo Removal Machine for Skin Beauty.
The evaluation of PAC performance was investigated in terms of removal efficiency of variables after settling time of thirty minutes. Low performances indicates problems in sedimentation which can caused by poor coagulation or flocculation. High chlorophyll-aconcentration,Mill Supplier Grey Board Cake Boards with Flower Edges with SGS (B&C-K074).J5 6-24V 27.8*46.6mm 10.64W DC Motor for Grass Cutter, turbidity and UV254removal efficiency are correlated with higher values in initial pH and chlorophyll-aconcentrations. Initial pH has been reported to affect coagulation performance of PAC (Factory Price 304 304L 316 316L 321 Inox Stainless Steel Coil / Sheet / Plate). In the maximal PAC performance pH was found to be around the neutral (Double Sided Heat Tape for Electrical Adhesive Masking Packing Tape;Wholesale Price of Benzyl Benzoate Powder Provide Sample Packing for Test). Coagulation is favorable for a pH range of 6.0-7.0 due to presence of positively charged Al species promoting flock formation (Small Silent Biogas Electric Generator for Biogas Plant) which determines the coagulation performance (200ton Jh25 Series Double Crank Sheet Metal Stamping Press). The dose of 4 mg Al.L-1resulted in pH >8.0 in Gargalheiras and Passagem das Traíras water thereby making the coagulation difficult. It has been suggested that high alkaline waters requires a higher PAC dose to achieve pH values favorable to coagulation (Factory Ultrasonic Herb Solvent Extraction Equipment with Discount).
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In summary we consider PAC application a good restoration technique for Cruzeta, Timbaúba and Dourados reservoirs.Qgd Series 3 Inch Deep-Well Submersible Electric Screw Water Pump.
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