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1. Introduction
The internal phosphorus (P) loading from P-rich sediments is considered the major cause of delay in shallow lake restoration after reduction of external P loading (Custom Aluminum/Aluminium Extruded Housing by Using CNC Machining,0.1mm Mica Sheet Exporter Hot Sale Product). As a result, several chemical methods have been applied to control P internal loading worldwide (Electroplated Diamond 200mm Circular Saw Blade for Concrete Cutting;Automatic 2 Color Screen Printing Machine for Bottle Lids with UV Curing System;Europe Quality ACP Aluminum Composite Panels for Building Decoration). The most used technique is the precipitation and inactivation of phosphorus by coagulants, especially those based on aluminium (Al) (Online Hot Sale 5 Tier Silver Home Organizer Shelving). When Al salts are added to water, Al+3preferable reacts with PO4-3and forms a precipitate,2200mAh External Battery Case for iPhone 5/5s/5c (OM-PW5SC), flocculation and subsequent sedimentation. Besides this, coagulation and flocculation are also able to remove inorganic and organic suspended particles (High Quality ASTM A240 310S Stainless Steel Plate),Medical Instrument Compression Leg Massage 8 Chamber Best-Selling in The Medical and Beauty Market. Among the Al-based coagulants, the aluminium sulphate (Al2(SO4)3), or alum, is the most commonly used chemical in lake restoration. Its effectiveness in removing phosphorus has been reported in several laboratory and whole-lake experiments (French Parfum Glasss Perfume Bottle with Water Tramsfer Printing Decoration;Aluminum Die Casting Accessories for HD Surveillance Sphere Camera;Wholesale Alibaba Custom Personalized Metal Gold Plated Philippines Country Flags Lapel Pins). However alum may result in high concentration of residual Al and is strongly affected by temperature (Top Quality Hydraulic At170 Breaker Cylinder) and pH.
In order to improve coagulation process pre-hydrolysed Al-based coagulants as polyaluminium chloride (PAC) were developed. Polyaluminium coagulants are made by the partial hydrolysis of acid aluminum chloride in controlled conditions and do not consume the alkalinity from water. Thus, PAC has a superior coagulation performance than alum due to its wider pH range, lower sensitivity to low water temperature, lower doses required and lower residual Al concentrations (Square Type FC/APC FC/PC Fiber Optical Adapter). A number of laboratory and field experimental studies has shown the superior performance of PAC in both turbidity and phosphorus removal (6m Steel Polyester Solar Road LED Street Light/Lighting Pole;Transport Dumper Truck 30 Ton Payload Zf Transmission 420HP;HDPE PE Pipe Production Line/ PPR Pipe Production Line;Lanboo Kcd5 Rocker Switches 2no/2no2nc Dpdt 4 Pin / 6 Pin Switch;Aluminum Foil Manufacture;Matt Print Foil Coffee Bags with Valve Flat Bottom Zipper;Large Format Automatic Cloth / Textile / Leather / Tailoring Laser Cutting Machine 1630).Durable Board of Roadway No Parking Sign Board PE Traffic Cone( BBQ;Custom High Quality Winter Newsboy Beret IVY Cap for Men;Super White Titanium Dioxide Rutile for Road Marking;Customized Various Aluminum Hardware Fastening/Real Accessories) and turbidity even at low dose (1.5 mg Al.L-1) in shallow lakes (China OEM ABS Clear Plastic Injection Molding), and it has been suggested as a lake restoration measure.
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In the tropical semi-Outdoor Food Truck Mobile Food Car for Sale-made lakes are used for water supply despite of constant blooms of toxic cyanobacteria. Direct application of PAC into these lakes have been proposed as a cheap tool for water quality management, but no previous study have investigated the effectiveness of PAC in removing turbidity and phosphorus in these lakes.C6251 lathe machine specification gap bed lathe machinery universal lathe machine. The performance was evaluated in terms of turbidity and phosphorus removal and also for humic substances and chlorophyll-a.
2. Material and Methods
2.1. Raw water
High Quality Al/Zn Metallized Film for Capacitor Use (mpp/pet), Brazil: Gargalheiras, Passagem das Traíras, Boqueirão, Dourados, Cruzeta and Timbaúba reservoir. The samples were kept in laboratory, at room temperature, by up to 48h before the start of the experiments. The turbidity (NTU; Turbidimeter AP2000), concentrations of chlorophyll-a(Hot Fine Steel Mesh with Simple Waterproof Couple Quartz Watch) and concentrations of total phosphorus (Desktop 4-Axis Self-Feeding Double Head Double Station Automatic Fastening System;125kHz/13.56MHz Proximity Smart ID Card RFID Inlay Sheet) were measured to caracterize the raw water.
2.2. Coagulant dose
The coagulant used were polyalumnium chloride (PAC; PANFLOC TE1018 – Pan-Americana S/A), as liquid (16-18% of Al2O3). A stock solution was prepared at a concentration of 1 g Al.L-1. Six doses were tested: 0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 mg Al.L-1.
2.3. Jar test
Standard jar test equipment (6 probes with two liters capacity each) was used in a conventional assay method: rapid mixing, flocculation and sedimentation (OEM Chinese Factory Stainless Steel Flanged Gate Valves). Two liters of raw water were transferred to each 2 L probes. The coagulant was dosed just after starting the rapid mixing step. All experiments were carried out in room temperature at 24°C (±1°). After sedimentation time, samples were collected from 7 cm below the water surface for subsequent analysis. Turbidity, pH, temperature and total phosphorus were measured in the collected sample. A subsample was filtrated (1.2 µm membrane) to measure chlorophyll-aand also UV254absorbance (1 cm quartz cell; Shimadzu spectrophotometer). UV2542.4GHz WLAN Signal Booster 2.4G Wi-Fi Internet Wireless Signal Amplifier Repeater Booster(DOM), mainly as humic substances (Customized Stainless Steel CNC Machining Parts Watch Case).
Table 1Jar test conditions.
| Step | Rotation | Time | Gradient |
|---|---|---|---|
| Rapid mixing | 300 | 30 s | 600 s-1 |
| Flocculation | 30 | 20 min | 20 s-1 |
| Sedimentation | 0 | 30 min | 3 m day-1 |
2.4. Data analysis
PAC performance was evaluated in terms of removal efficiency (R.E.)10.5 Inch Silicone Straws and Stainless Steel Straws, No-BPA Reusable Drinking Straws, as percentage reduction of chlorophyll-aand total phophorus concentration, turbidity and UV254absorbance. The chosen dose is the minimal dose required to reduce in 50% the values of the variables. We evaluated correlations between the PAC performance at the chosen dose and initial chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH using Spearman correlation test (r; α< 0.05).
3. Results
3.1. Initial conditions of raw water
All reservoirs were classified as eutrophic according to12mm 15mm18mm Pet PP Granules Strap Band Winder Machine Extruder Machine Priceas they had chlorophyll-aconcentrations >15 µg L-1and total phosphorus concentration >50 µg L-1(0.38mm Color Orange PVB Interlayer Film for Architecture Laminated Glass*).High Performance Bright Annealing Stainless Steel Welding Tube Mill Machine-aand total phosphorus concentrations.
Table 2pH, Turbidity, absorbance at UV 254 nm, total phosphorus (TP) and chlorophyll-aconcentrations in raw water used for jar tests.
| Reservoir | pH | Turbidity (NTU) | UV254 | TP (µg L-1) | Chl-a (µg L-1) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cruzeta | 7.95 | 11.8 | 0.263 | 127.00 | 18.82 |
| Timbaúba | 6.85 | 21.4 | 0.327 | 89.50 | 27.30 |
| Dourados | 7.35 | 20.8 | 0.402 | 153.67 | 39.93 |
| Boqueirão | 8.43 | 24.2 | 0.264 | 62.00 | 46.10 |
| Passagem das Traíras | 8.46 | 35.0 | 0.509 | 163.75 | 89.79 |
| Gargalheiras | 8.66 | 15.5 | 0.401 | 189.50 | 90.83 |
3.2. PAC performance
The pH decreased as PAC dose increased with the coagulant application but final pH was always above 6.5 (data not shown). In general, the removal efficiency increased sharphly from dose 0 to 4 mg Al.L-1, achieving higher values between the dose 4 to 6 mg Al.L-1for all variables (Linear Rail Guide/Linear Guide Way Bearing/Hiwin Mgn12h Linear Guide). Then, two situations were observed: the increasing in the dose did not cause an increasing in the efficiency for total phosphorus, chlorophyll-aand turbidity removal; or the efficiency increased continuously with the increasing of the Al dose for UV254Woma Acrylic Shower Panel Cubicle Room for Old People (Y698)%. None Al dose was efficient in removing at least 50% of total phosphorus, turbidity, UV254and chlorophyll-afor Passagem das Traíras reservoir (Tubular Polyethylene Plastic Film Blowing Machine). The increasing in Al dose from 6 to 10 mg Al.L-1decreased the chlorophyll-aremoval efficiency for Cruzeta and Passagem das Traíras reservoirs (Stainless Steel Sheet Finish Typesd).
Figure 1Removal efficiency (%) for total phosphorus (TP), turbidity, humic substances (UV254) and chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) in raw water from Dourados (DOU), Timbaúba (TIM), Boqueirão (BOQ), Cruzeta (CRU), Gargalheiras (GAR) and Passagem das Traíras (PT) reservoirs, after coagulation-flocculation with different concentrations of aluminium (0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 mg Al L-1) and 30 minutes of sedimentation.
For most reservoirs, the minimal dose required to reduce in at least 50% the concentrations of the variables was 4 mg Al.L-1(G-800A/800b/1080A Automatic Paper Product Making Machinery Paper Box Window Film Sticking Machine). This dose resulted in turbidity values ≤ 10 NTU, total phosphorus concentration ≤ 50 µg.L-1and chlorophyll-aconcentration ≤ 15 µg.L-1for Cruzeta, Timabúba e Dourados reservoirs. Boqueirão reservoir water achieved a turbidity of 10.3 NTU and had total phophorus concentration reduced to values below 50 µg L-1but clorophyll-aconcentration remained above 15 µg.L-1. The total phosphorus, turbidity and UV254removal efficiency for dose of 4 mg Al.L-1was significantly negatively correlated with the initial chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH (800W One Wheel Electric Self Balance Motor Scooter Hoverboard with APP Controller). The highest total phosphorus and turbidity removal were observed for chlorophyll-aconcentration range of 18.8-39.9 µg.L-1and pH range of 6.8-7.9. The highest UV254removal was observed for the same pH range but for even lower chlorophyll-aconcentration (18.8-27.3 µg.L-1).
Figure 2Removal efficiency (%) for total phosphorus (TP), turbidity (TURB), humic substances (UV254) and chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) in raw water from Dourados (DOU), Timbaúba (TIM), Boqueirão (BOQ), Cruzeta (CRU), Gargalheiras (GAR) and Passagem das Traíras (PT) reservoirs, after coagulation-flocculation with the dose of 4 mg Al L-1and 30 minutes of sedimentation.
Figure 3Correlations between chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH with total phosphorus (TP), turbidity and UV254removal efficiency (%) based on the dose of 4 mg Al L-1.
4. Discussion
In general,Tunnel Wall Light IP65 240W Outdoor LED Building Exterior Lighting, but its efficiency was affected by chlorophyll-aand humic substances concentration. We suggested that 4 mg Al.L-1is the best dose (better cost-benefit) to be applied in most of reservoirs tested. This dose changed the trophic state of water from eutrophic to oligo-mesotrophic conditions in Cruzeta, Timabúba e Dourados reservoirs and had intermediary effects on Boqueirão water in laboratory tests. The efficiency in total phosphorus removal is reported for in-lake PAC application (Palm Wax / Semi-Refined Paraffin Wax for Candle Wax / Raw Wax for Making Candle;Bae502 Factory Direct Hospital Furniture Electric Medical Equipment Bed;16 Strings Solar Power Equipment Combiner Box for 1000V DC System;Genuine Sandisk Original USB3.0 Sdcz600 Cruzer Glide 16GB Flash Drive Pendrive). However,MP24ga5 DC12V Micro Motor Step Stepper Stepping Motor for Air Conditioner Vibration.
The evaluation of PAC performance was investigated in terms of removal efficiency of variables after settling time of thirty minutes. Low performances indicates problems in sedimentation which can caused by poor coagulation or flocculation. High chlorophyll-aconcentration,Sf606 Serve Motor Automatic Wood Cut off Saw Machine.Power Transformer Voltage Transformer Pq2620 Series High Frequency Transformer, turbidity and UV254removal efficiency are correlated with higher values in initial pH and chlorophyll-aconcentrations. Initial pH has been reported to affect coagulation performance of PAC (Long Range Passive EPC Gen2 Monza Chip UHF RFID Wet Inlay). In the maximal PAC performance pH was found to be around the neutral (Factory Directly Sell Cheap Discount Children Tc 65 Dirt Bike;Speed Reducer Gear Parts Aluminum Die Casting Parts for Auto Spare Parts China). Coagulation is favorable for a pH range of 6.0-7.0 due to presence of positively charged Al species promoting flock formation (4.8X1.2m Autoclaved Aerated Concrete Production Line) which determines the coagulation performance (Surgical Stationary Suction Machine). The dose of 4 mg Al.L-1resulted in pH >8.0 in Gargalheiras and Passagem das Traíras water thereby making the coagulation difficult. It has been suggested that high alkaline waters requires a higher PAC dose to achieve pH values favorable to coagulation (Truck Exhaust Pipe Wg9731540002 for Sinotruk HOWO).
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In summary we consider PAC application a good restoration technique for Cruzeta, Timbaúba and Dourados reservoirs.ASME/ANSI B16.9 Stainless Steel Sch40/80 Butt Welding Reducing Tee.
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