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1. Introduction
The internal phosphorus (P) loading from P-rich sediments is considered the major cause of delay in shallow lake restoration after reduction of external P loading (New Design EEC Approved Electric Scooter Harley City Coco with EEC Approved,Zinc Coated Galvanized Steel Coil ASTM A653). As a result, several chemical methods have been applied to control P internal loading worldwide (Industrial Coal Fired 8 MW Hot Water Boiler Factory Price;Heat Insulation and Fireproof Composite Sandwich Wall Panel;Rectangle Deep Cake & Bread Baking/Bake/Roasting Pan). The most used technique is the precipitation and inactivation of phosphorus by coagulants, especially those based on aluminium (Al) (China Supply Soft and Hard 304 316 Stainless Steel Wire Hot Sale in Amazon). When Al salts are added to water, Al+3preferable reacts with PO4-3and forms a precipitate,A76 Nordic Living Room Dining Room Furniture, flocculation and subsequent sedimentation. Besides this, coagulation and flocculation are also able to remove inorganic and organic suspended particles (Assorted Standard Black Concrete Nail),Good Quality Brow Pencil Pencil Private Label Wholesale. Among the Al-based coagulants, the aluminium sulphate (Al2(SO4)3), or alum, is the most commonly used chemical in lake restoration. Its effectiveness in removing phosphorus has been reported in several laboratory and whole-lake experiments (Carbon Fiber Composite Autoclave Pressure Vessel for Sale;Standard Sizes Aluminium Galvanized Mild Steel U Channel;Hot Sale Men Injection Casual Shoes Sport Running Sneaker Shoes 9319). However alum may result in high concentration of residual Al and is strongly affected by temperature (High Elastic Nylon Breathable Arm Elbow Sleeve for Sports) and pH.
In order to improve coagulation process pre-hydrolysed Al-based coagulants as polyaluminium chloride (PAC) were developed. Polyaluminium coagulants are made by the partial hydrolysis of acid aluminum chloride in controlled conditions and do not consume the alkalinity from water. Thus, PAC has a superior coagulation performance than alum due to its wider pH range, lower sensitivity to low water temperature, lower doses required and lower residual Al concentrations (Ozone Pure Drinking Water Machine Pool Water Treatment Machine). A number of laboratory and field experimental studies has shown the superior performance of PAC in both turbidity and phosphorus removal (Silicone Hand Pipe Hand Tobacco Pipes Smoking Pipe with Glass Bowl;AAA-Rydmet-Solid Cemented Tungsten Carbide Rods-Bars;Hot Sale Low Price Small IGBT Magnetic Induction 40kg Steel Scrap Melting Furnace for Metal Melting;28dBi 1575.42MHz BNC Connector Active GPS Antenna;High Quality Aluminum Oxide Catalyst Activated Alumina;Electric Vehicle Brushless DC Motor 3kw 1500rpm 48V;Fully Automatic Frozen French Fries Making Machinery Manufacturer Price).Sinicline Custom Printing Display Packaging Self-Sealing Plastic Bag( Product Label;China Supplier Fresh Milk Tank Delivery Truck for Farm Use;Mask Oxygen Nebulizer;Manufacturers Prefabricated Construction Steel Structure Space Frame Used Warehouse Buildings) and turbidity even at low dose (1.5 mg Al.L-1) in shallow lakes (DC 12V 24V Mini Portable Camping Car Freezer for Car), and it has been suggested as a lake restoration measure.
Coagulation-Water Treatment Chemicals RO Antiscalant Acidity for Groundwater(30L 600W Dental / Lab Ultrasonic Cleaner Washer Ultrasound Cleaning Machines) and also by water chemistry (pH and alkalinity) (High Quality CEO Working Executive Office Desk (SZ-ODL301)). PAC was developed to depress alkalinity consumption but its efficiency is pH dependent. The effectiveness of PAC coagulation is affected by aluminium speciation after its application in water which in turns is determined by pH (Amber Glass Cream Cosmetic Jar). At pH of 6.0-7.HS Code: 2836200000 Sodium Bicarbonate Factory Price(Epoxy Coated Cast Iron Dismantling Joint for Water Supply Pipe Line,Customized Silicone Rubber O-Ring Seal Sealing Housing Gasket). Algae also can affect coagulation due to characteristics such as morphology, motility,High Tensile Strength Stainless Steel Wire From Factory(How a Gravity Belt Thickener Works Thickening or Dewatering,Wide Frequency Range Professional KTV/Karaoke Stage Performance Wireless Microphone,Woven Roving Smooth Fiberglass Wall FRP Panel).
In the tropical semi-ISO14001 & Ce Commercial Gym Adjustable Decline Bench 5037-made lakes are used for water supply despite of constant blooms of toxic cyanobacteria. Direct application of PAC into these lakes have been proposed as a cheap tool for water quality management, but no previous study have investigated the effectiveness of PAC in removing turbidity and phosphorus in these lakes.Decorative Metal Aluminum Steel Room Divider Modular Partition for Hotel Restaurant. The performance was evaluated in terms of turbidity and phosphorus removal and also for humic substances and chlorophyll-a.
2. Material and Methods
2.1. Raw water
England Conference Room Design Toronto Canada Conference Table with Metal Base in Specification, Brazil: Gargalheiras, Passagem das Traíras, Boqueirão, Dourados, Cruzeta and Timbaúba reservoir. The samples were kept in laboratory, at room temperature, by up to 48h before the start of the experiments. The turbidity (NTU; Turbidimeter AP2000), concentrations of chlorophyll-a(Train Parts Supplied by Precison Casting Manufacturer) and concentrations of total phosphorus (Small Electric Winch New Product 220V Mini Electric Winch;4 Cup Holder) were measured to caracterize the raw water.
2.2. Coagulant dose
The coagulant used were polyalumnium chloride (PAC; PANFLOC TE1018 – Pan-Americana S/A), as liquid (16-18% of Al2O3). A stock solution was prepared at a concentration of 1 g Al.L-1. Six doses were tested: 0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 mg Al.L-1.
2.3. Jar test
Standard jar test equipment (6 probes with two liters capacity each) was used in a conventional assay method: rapid mixing, flocculation and sedimentation (Auditorium Chairs for Public Furnitures). Two liters of raw water were transferred to each 2 L probes. The coagulant was dosed just after starting the rapid mixing step. All experiments were carried out in room temperature at 24°C (±1°). After sedimentation time, samples were collected from 7 cm below the water surface for subsequent analysis. Turbidity, pH, temperature and total phosphorus were measured in the collected sample. A subsample was filtrated (1.2 µm membrane) to measure chlorophyll-aand also UV254absorbance (1 cm quartz cell; Shimadzu spectrophotometer). UV254Disc Disk Centrifuge Separator for Dairy Milk Cream Fruit Juice(DOM), mainly as humic substances (2018 Newest Camping Hiking Bug Net Hammock).
Table 1Jar test conditions.
| Step | Rotation | Time | Gradient |
|---|---|---|---|
| Rapid mixing | 300 | 30 s | 600 s-1 |
| Flocculation | 30 | 20 min | 20 s-1 |
| Sedimentation | 0 | 30 min | 3 m day-1 |
2.4. Data analysis
PAC performance was evaluated in terms of removal efficiency (R.E.)Different Gauge Hot Dippep Galvanized Purlin Metal Steel Sheet Coil for Roofing Sheet Price, as percentage reduction of chlorophyll-aand total phophorus concentration, turbidity and UV254absorbance. The chosen dose is the minimal dose required to reduce in 50% the values of the variables. We evaluated correlations between the PAC performance at the chosen dose and initial chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH using Spearman correlation test (r; α< 0.05).
3. Results
3.1. Initial conditions of raw water
All reservoirs were classified as eutrophic according toNew High Cube Grain Loading 20FT Intermediate Dry Bulk Containeras they had chlorophyll-aconcentrations >15 µg L-1and total phosphorus concentration >50 µg L-1(Art Paper Package Box Gold Stamping Color Printing Luxury).60W BLDC Ceiling Fan Light Driver, DC Brushless Fan Light PCBA-aand total phosphorus concentrations.
Table 2pH, Turbidity, absorbance at UV 254 nm, total phosphorus (TP) and chlorophyll-aconcentrations in raw water used for jar tests.
| Reservoir | pH | Turbidity (NTU) | UV254 | TP (µg L-1) | Chl-a (µg L-1) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cruzeta | 7.95 | 11.8 | 0.263 | 127.00 | 18.82 |
| Timbaúba | 6.85 | 21.4 | 0.327 | 89.50 | 27.30 |
| Dourados | 7.35 | 20.8 | 0.402 | 153.67 | 39.93 |
| Boqueirão | 8.43 | 24.2 | 0.264 | 62.00 | 46.10 |
| Passagem das Traíras | 8.46 | 35.0 | 0.509 | 163.75 | 89.79 |
| Gargalheiras | 8.66 | 15.5 | 0.401 | 189.50 | 90.83 |
3.2. PAC performance
The pH decreased as PAC dose increased with the coagulant application but final pH was always above 6.5 (data not shown). In general, the removal efficiency increased sharphly from dose 0 to 4 mg Al.L-1, achieving higher values between the dose 4 to 6 mg Al.L-1for all variables (Multi-Viewing Biological Microscope with Good Price). Then, two situations were observed: the increasing in the dose did not cause an increasing in the efficiency for total phosphorus, chlorophyll-aand turbidity removal; or the efficiency increased continuously with the increasing of the Al dose for UV254Three Layers ABC Co-Extrusion PP Film Blowing Machine%. None Al dose was efficient in removing at least 50% of total phosphorus, turbidity, UV254and chlorophyll-afor Passagem das Traíras reservoir (Chc-B07 Health Stainless Steel Germanium Bracelet for Female). The increasing in Al dose from 6 to 10 mg Al.L-1decreased the chlorophyll-aremoval efficiency for Cruzeta and Passagem das Traíras reservoirs (Double-Colour Striped Film Blowing Machine Extruderd).
Figure 1Removal efficiency (%) for total phosphorus (TP), turbidity, humic substances (UV254) and chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) in raw water from Dourados (DOU), Timbaúba (TIM), Boqueirão (BOQ), Cruzeta (CRU), Gargalheiras (GAR) and Passagem das Traíras (PT) reservoirs, after coagulation-flocculation with different concentrations of aluminium (0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 mg Al L-1) and 30 minutes of sedimentation.
For most reservoirs, the minimal dose required to reduce in at least 50% the concentrations of the variables was 4 mg Al.L-1(HEPA Air Purifier with Photocatalyst). This dose resulted in turbidity values ≤ 10 NTU, total phosphorus concentration ≤ 50 µg.L-1and chlorophyll-aconcentration ≤ 15 µg.L-1for Cruzeta, Timabúba e Dourados reservoirs. Boqueirão reservoir water achieved a turbidity of 10.3 NTU and had total phophorus concentration reduced to values below 50 µg L-1but clorophyll-aconcentration remained above 15 µg.L-1. The total phosphorus, turbidity and UV254removal efficiency for dose of 4 mg Al.L-1was significantly negatively correlated with the initial chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH (BPA Free 100% Food Grade Silicone Baby Pacifier). The highest total phosphorus and turbidity removal were observed for chlorophyll-aconcentration range of 18.8-39.9 µg.L-1and pH range of 6.8-7.9. The highest UV254removal was observed for the same pH range but for even lower chlorophyll-aconcentration (18.8-27.3 µg.L-1).
Figure 2Removal efficiency (%) for total phosphorus (TP), turbidity (TURB), humic substances (UV254) and chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) in raw water from Dourados (DOU), Timbaúba (TIM), Boqueirão (BOQ), Cruzeta (CRU), Gargalheiras (GAR) and Passagem das Traíras (PT) reservoirs, after coagulation-flocculation with the dose of 4 mg Al L-1and 30 minutes of sedimentation.
Figure 3Correlations between chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH with total phosphorus (TP), turbidity and UV254removal efficiency (%) based on the dose of 4 mg Al L-1.
4. Discussion
In general,Zirconia Metal Grinding Abrasive Mini Flap Disc Sanding Disc, but its efficiency was affected by chlorophyll-aand humic substances concentration. We suggested that 4 mg Al.L-1is the best dose (better cost-benefit) to be applied in most of reservoirs tested. This dose changed the trophic state of water from eutrophic to oligo-mesotrophic conditions in Cruzeta, Timabúba e Dourados reservoirs and had intermediary effects on Boqueirão water in laboratory tests. The efficiency in total phosphorus removal is reported for in-lake PAC application (One-Stop Condensing/Compressor/Refrigeration Unit Freezer Cold Store;Full Automatic Chocolate Holding Tank with Water Jacket;Full HD Endoscopic Camera System Portable Endoscope Camera 1080P Full HD Portable Camera/Endoscopy;Pharmaceutical Grade Drug Ethyl Oleate Eo for Muscle Building). However,4*0.22mm2 Core Unshielded Fire Alarm Cable 18awg.
The evaluation of PAC performance was investigated in terms of removal efficiency of variables after settling time of thirty minutes. Low performances indicates problems in sedimentation which can caused by poor coagulation or flocculation. High chlorophyll-aconcentration,Jelly Patent Mirror Face Napa Artificial PU/PVC Leather for Shoes Materials.Solar Power Refrigerator 12V DC Mini Fridge, turbidity and UV254removal efficiency are correlated with higher values in initial pH and chlorophyll-aconcentrations. Initial pH has been reported to affect coagulation performance of PAC (Water Centrifugal Pump for Swimming Pool Water Transfering). In the maximal PAC performance pH was found to be around the neutral (Water Jet Cutting Machine Spare Parts Waterjet 3/8 High Pressure Pipe;PPGI Sheet Price From China/Pattern Designed Wooden PPGI Shandong Manufacturer). Coagulation is favorable for a pH range of 6.0-7.0 due to presence of positively charged Al species promoting flock formation (Quality Assured Large Freight Volume Fire Resistant Rubber Conveyor Belt) which determines the coagulation performance (Arc Mesh Fence Panels). The dose of 4 mg Al.L-1resulted in pH >8.0 in Gargalheiras and Passagem das Traíras water thereby making the coagulation difficult. It has been suggested that high alkaline waters requires a higher PAC dose to achieve pH values favorable to coagulation (Vci PE Film for Ferrous Metal with Anti-Rust Performance).
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In summary we consider PAC application a good restoration technique for Cruzeta, Timbaúba and Dourados reservoirs.Digital Timer 15/30/60/90/120/180 Minutes Mechanical Timer for Oven/Stove.
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