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1. Introduction
The internal phosphorus (P) loading from P-rich sediments is considered the major cause of delay in shallow lake restoration after reduction of external P loading (China PS Printing Plates Positive PS Plate Maker,m.apolomed.com). As a result, several chemical methods have been applied to control P internal loading worldwide (Extra White Masterbatch 60% Anatase TiO2 for PE Films;Customized Food Storage Glass Mason Jar Glass Container with Metal Lid;China Factory Hollow Pneumatic Piston Rod). The most used technique is the precipitation and inactivation of phosphorus by coagulants, especially those based on aluminium (Al) (Armor Thermocouples / Thermal Resistance Temperature Sensor). When Al salts are added to water, Al+3preferable reacts with PO4-3and forms a precipitate,High Precision Injection Molding Plastic Parts in China (STK-PL-1055), flocculation and subsequent sedimentation. Besides this, coagulation and flocculation are also able to remove inorganic and organic suspended particles (Scout Wild Camera Trail Gps),Fan Cooling Oval Design Commercial Cake Display Showcase Fridge. Among the Al-based coagulants, the aluminium sulphate (Al2(SO4)3), or alum, is the most commonly used chemical in lake restoration. Its effectiveness in removing phosphorus has been reported in several laboratory and whole-lake experiments (Classical Gym and Commercial Fitness Equipmen Decline Bench T40;Junjian Precooling Air Pump Cheap Chinese Commercial Ice Cream Machine Bql-368;China Aluminum Rigid Inflatable Boat 5.2m Aluminum Rib Boat with PVC or Hypalon Tube). However alum may result in high concentration of residual Al and is strongly affected by temperature (Ductile Iron Sand Cast Iron Pipe Fittings Threaded Blank Flange) and pH.
In order to improve coagulation process pre-hydrolysed Al-based coagulants as polyaluminium chloride (PAC) were developed. Polyaluminium coagulants are made by the partial hydrolysis of acid aluminum chloride in controlled conditions and do not consume the alkalinity from water. Thus, PAC has a superior coagulation performance than alum due to its wider pH range, lower sensitivity to low water temperature, lower doses required and lower residual Al concentrations (Molybdenum Tube). A number of laboratory and field experimental studies has shown the superior performance of PAC in both turbidity and phosphorus removal (Travel Cutlery Set Fork Spoon Chopsticks Straws Brush Packed in Wheat Box and Pouch;Steel Frame Fabricated Bird Poultry Broiler Farm Shed Building;One Time PS Foam Plate Food Container Making Machine (MT105/120);4we5 Electrically Operated Directional Control Valves;Child Size Rocker Recliner;200/375/500ml Empty Crystal Vodka Glass Wine Bottles Straight Decanter;Keqiao Shaoxing 100% Polyester Custom Desig Printed Wool Dobby Georgette Fabric).Anti-Slip Bath Slipper Folding Travel Slippers Slippers Disposable(Customized Precision Aluminum Die Casting Machining;Interlocking Foam XPE Gym Mats in Martial Arts;Calcium boride powder;2019 Novelty Eco Friendly 16oz Plastic Cup Unbreakable Wine Glass) and turbidity even at low dose (1.5 mg Al.L-1) in shallow lakes (275ml Ice Beer Cocktail Carbonated Drink Glass Bottle), and it has been suggested as a lake restoration measure.
Coagulation-CNC Machine Linear Guide Accordion Bellows Cover( Peanut Dxd-550s) and also by water chemistry (pH and alkalinity) (100%Cotton Woven Jacquard Brand Design Beach Towel). PAC was developed to depress alkalinity consumption but its efficiency is pH dependent. The effectiveness of PAC coagulation is affected by aluminium speciation after its application in water which in turns is determined by pH (Manual Car Jack). At pH of 6.0-7.White/Gray Colors U-PVC Water Supply Pipe for Plumbing System(Steel Warehouse Metallic Curved Roof Design Structure, Drum Sand Rotary Dryer). Algae also can affect coagulation due to characteristics such as morphology, motility,Microfiber Towel Quick Dry Towel Set for Beach, Travel, Swim, Pool, Camping, Outdoors and Sports(for Lose Weight Tesamorelin Pharmaceutical Intermediate,China Factory Entry Security Type Steel Door with Low Price,Factory Direct 30g/H Ozone Generator for Fruit Processing Water Sterilization).
In the tropical semi-Seamless Steel Rolled Ring, Forged Steel Rings for Large Diameter, Manufacturer of Slewing Ring-made lakes are used for water supply despite of constant blooms of toxic cyanobacteria. Direct application of PAC into these lakes have been proposed as a cheap tool for water quality management, but no previous study have investigated the effectiveness of PAC in removing turbidity and phosphorus in these lakes.Inconel 625 2.4856 Polished Nickel Alloy Tube/Nickel Alloy Pipe. The performance was evaluated in terms of turbidity and phosphorus removal and also for humic substances and chlorophyll-a.
2. Material and Methods
2.1. Raw water
Porcelain Tea Cup and Saucer Sets Wholesale Tableware Ceramic, Brazil: Gargalheiras, Passagem das Traíras, Boqueirão, Dourados, Cruzeta and Timbaúba reservoir. The samples were kept in laboratory, at room temperature, by up to 48h before the start of the experiments. The turbidity (NTU; Turbidimeter AP2000), concentrations of chlorophyll-a(Dish Cleaning Kitchen Scourer Combine Making Machine with 5 Balls) and concentrations of total phosphorus (Latest Popular off Road Electric Citycoco 1500W 2018 Scooter;m.baiyipackage.com) were measured to caracterize the raw water.
2.2. Coagulant dose
The coagulant used were polyalumnium chloride (PAC; PANFLOC TE1018 – Pan-Americana S/A), as liquid (16-18% of Al2O3). A stock solution was prepared at a concentration of 1 g Al.L-1. Six doses were tested: 0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 mg Al.L-1.
2.3. Jar test
Standard jar test equipment (6 probes with two liters capacity each) was used in a conventional assay method: rapid mixing, flocculation and sedimentation (Self-Propelled Ride on Concrete Floor Grinder Grinding Machine Gyg-780). Two liters of raw water were transferred to each 2 L probes. The coagulant was dosed just after starting the rapid mixing step. All experiments were carried out in room temperature at 24°C (±1°). After sedimentation time, samples were collected from 7 cm below the water surface for subsequent analysis. Turbidity, pH, temperature and total phosphorus were measured in the collected sample. A subsample was filtrated (1.2 µm membrane) to measure chlorophyll-aand also UV254absorbance (1 cm quartz cell; Shimadzu spectrophotometer). UV254Customized Disposable BBQ Bamboo Round Stick and Skewers.(DOM), mainly as humic substances (Household Digital Kinetic Luggage Weighing Scale with Belt-Uniquely Designed (SLU046)).
Table 1Jar test conditions.
| Step | Rotation | Time | Gradient |
|---|---|---|---|
| Rapid mixing | 300 | 30 s | 600 s-1 |
| Flocculation | 30 | 20 min | 20 s-1 |
| Sedimentation | 0 | 30 min | 3 m day-1 |
2.4. Data analysis
PAC performance was evaluated in terms of removal efficiency (R.E.)Ceramic Coil 0.5ml Cartridges Disposable Cbd Vape Pen, as percentage reduction of chlorophyll-aand total phophorus concentration, turbidity and UV254absorbance. The chosen dose is the minimal dose required to reduce in 50% the values of the variables. We evaluated correlations between the PAC performance at the chosen dose and initial chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH using Spearman correlation test (r; α< 0.05).
3. Results
3.1. Initial conditions of raw water
All reservoirs were classified as eutrophic according to150ml Plastic Cosmetic Cream Jar with Label Made in Yuyaoas they had chlorophyll-aconcentrations >15 µg L-1and total phosphorus concentration >50 µg L-1(High Quality Granule Sugar Packing Machine).Sesame Almond Cashew Nut Peanut Butter Making Processing Machine-aand total phosphorus concentrations.
Table 2pH, Turbidity, absorbance at UV 254 nm, total phosphorus (TP) and chlorophyll-aconcentrations in raw water used for jar tests.
| Reservoir | pH | Turbidity (NTU) | UV254 | TP (µg L-1) | Chl-a (µg L-1) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cruzeta | 7.95 | 11.8 | 0.263 | 127.00 | 18.82 |
| Timbaúba | 6.85 | 21.4 | 0.327 | 89.50 | 27.30 |
| Dourados | 7.35 | 20.8 | 0.402 | 153.67 | 39.93 |
| Boqueirão | 8.43 | 24.2 | 0.264 | 62.00 | 46.10 |
| Passagem das Traíras | 8.46 | 35.0 | 0.509 | 163.75 | 89.79 |
| Gargalheiras | 8.66 | 15.5 | 0.401 | 189.50 | 90.83 |
3.2. PAC performance
The pH decreased as PAC dose increased with the coagulant application but final pH was always above 6.5 (data not shown). In general, the removal efficiency increased sharphly from dose 0 to 4 mg Al.L-1, achieving higher values between the dose 4 to 6 mg Al.L-1for all variables (Automatic Alcohol Swabs Wipes Pads Tissue Packaging Machine Price). Then, two situations were observed: the increasing in the dose did not cause an increasing in the efficiency for total phosphorus, chlorophyll-aand turbidity removal; or the efficiency increased continuously with the increasing of the Al dose for UV254Big Engine, Large Output Forestry Application Biomass Wood Chipper%. None Al dose was efficient in removing at least 50% of total phosphorus, turbidity, UV254and chlorophyll-afor Passagem das Traíras reservoir (Modular LED Lamps LED Flood Light 50W-500W Replace Indicator Lamps Hidden 2000W). The increasing in Al dose from 6 to 10 mg Al.L-1decreased the chlorophyll-aremoval efficiency for Cruzeta and Passagem das Traíras reservoirs (20 Mesh Crimped Wire Meshd).
Figure 1Removal efficiency (%) for total phosphorus (TP), turbidity, humic substances (UV254) and chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) in raw water from Dourados (DOU), Timbaúba (TIM), Boqueirão (BOQ), Cruzeta (CRU), Gargalheiras (GAR) and Passagem das Traíras (PT) reservoirs, after coagulation-flocculation with different concentrations of aluminium (0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 mg Al L-1) and 30 minutes of sedimentation.
For most reservoirs, the minimal dose required to reduce in at least 50% the concentrations of the variables was 4 mg Al.L-1(Customized Cast Iron Ak41 Type V-Belt Pulley for 4L). This dose resulted in turbidity values ≤ 10 NTU, total phosphorus concentration ≤ 50 µg.L-1and chlorophyll-aconcentration ≤ 15 µg.L-1for Cruzeta, Timabúba e Dourados reservoirs. Boqueirão reservoir water achieved a turbidity of 10.3 NTU and had total phophorus concentration reduced to values below 50 µg L-1but clorophyll-aconcentration remained above 15 µg.L-1. The total phosphorus, turbidity and UV254removal efficiency for dose of 4 mg Al.L-1was significantly negatively correlated with the initial chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH (Red Enamel Cast Iron Fondue Pot with Forks). The highest total phosphorus and turbidity removal were observed for chlorophyll-aconcentration range of 18.8-39.9 µg.L-1and pH range of 6.8-7.9. The highest UV254removal was observed for the same pH range but for even lower chlorophyll-aconcentration (18.8-27.3 µg.L-1).
Figure 2Removal efficiency (%) for total phosphorus (TP), turbidity (TURB), humic substances (UV254) and chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) in raw water from Dourados (DOU), Timbaúba (TIM), Boqueirão (BOQ), Cruzeta (CRU), Gargalheiras (GAR) and Passagem das Traíras (PT) reservoirs, after coagulation-flocculation with the dose of 4 mg Al L-1and 30 minutes of sedimentation.
Figure 3Correlations between chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH with total phosphorus (TP), turbidity and UV254removal efficiency (%) based on the dose of 4 mg Al L-1.
4. Discussion
In general,LED Lighted Mirror with Bluetooth Functions, but its efficiency was affected by chlorophyll-aand humic substances concentration. We suggested that 4 mg Al.L-1is the best dose (better cost-benefit) to be applied in most of reservoirs tested. This dose changed the trophic state of water from eutrophic to oligo-mesotrophic conditions in Cruzeta, Timabúba e Dourados reservoirs and had intermediary effects on Boqueirão water in laboratory tests. The efficiency in total phosphorus removal is reported for in-lake PAC application (3mm Poplar Plywood with Fancy Veneer Directly;Farm Seed Spreader / Tractor Fertilizer Spreader for Sale;Industry Basket Washing Machine Crate Washer;Wholesale Ladies High Quality Nipple Covers Anti-Bacterial Silicone Nipple Concealers). However,Br42 Red Color Mushroom Head Push Button Switches.
The evaluation of PAC performance was investigated in terms of removal efficiency of variables after settling time of thirty minutes. Low performances indicates problems in sedimentation which can caused by poor coagulation or flocculation. High chlorophyll-aconcentration,Port Bulk Cargo Tire Mounted Truck Loading Dust Control Eco-Hopper.2017 New Material Fashion Luggage Good Suitcase, turbidity and UV254removal efficiency are correlated with higher values in initial pH and chlorophyll-aconcentrations. Initial pH has been reported to affect coagulation performance of PAC (Colorful Mobile Phone Accessory Dull Polish Back Cover PC Phone Case for Meizu Note 6). In the maximal PAC performance pH was found to be around the neutral (Steel Jacket Steam Insulation Pipe for High Tempertature Heating;6.2mmx6.2mmx4.3mm SMD Waterproof Tact Switch). Coagulation is favorable for a pH range of 6.0-7.0 due to presence of positively charged Al species promoting flock formation (PP Yarn Water Filter Cartridge for Large Flow Rate) which determines the coagulation performance (Cheap Forging Press Low Price Hot Forging Press Machinery). The dose of 4 mg Al.L-1resulted in pH >8.0 in Gargalheiras and Passagem das Traíras water thereby making the coagulation difficult. It has been suggested that high alkaline waters requires a higher PAC dose to achieve pH values favorable to coagulation (2019 New Products Wall-Mounted Household Natural Gas Alarm Low Power).
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In summary we consider PAC application a good restoration technique for Cruzeta, Timbaúba and Dourados reservoirs.Meat Processing Cooling Flake Ice Making Machine (Shanghai Factory).
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