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1. Introduction
The internal phosphorus (P) loading from P-rich sediments is considered the major cause of delay in shallow lake restoration after reduction of external P loading (10.1 LCD Module 1024*600 Optional Touch Panel for Medical Equipment,Face Mask Disposable). As a result, several chemical methods have been applied to control P internal loading worldwide (Precision Machining Components for Hydraulic Cylinder Producing;Professional Salon Use Plastic Hair Coloring Comb;OEM Precision Steel Milling Machining Auto Parts). The most used technique is the precipitation and inactivation of phosphorus by coagulants, especially those based on aluminium (Al) (Luxury Wedding Collapsible/Folding Paper Packing Gift Box for Gift Packaging). When Al salts are added to water, Al+3preferable reacts with PO4-3and forms a precipitate,Shielded Mini Ball Bearings with Anti-Rusty Stainless Steel Smr106zz, flocculation and subsequent sedimentation. Besides this, coagulation and flocculation are also able to remove inorganic and organic suspended particles (Diamond Mesh Garden Fence),Custom Printing Polyester National Countryvinyl Nobori American Banner Flag. Among the Al-based coagulants, the aluminium sulphate (Al2(SO4)3), or alum, is the most commonly used chemical in lake restoration. Its effectiveness in removing phosphorus has been reported in several laboratory and whole-lake experiments (Hot Sale Brass Chrome Metal Dish Toilet Bathroom Fitting;Airtight Preserving Nut Glass Storage Jar Christmas Candy Glass Jar;Cheap Price SGS 304 201 Mirror Etched Stainless Steel for Wall Panel Decoration). However alum may result in high concentration of residual Al and is strongly affected by temperature (Kw-700 Industrial Commerical Driving Type Floor Scrubber Price) and pH.
In order to improve coagulation process pre-hydrolysed Al-based coagulants as polyaluminium chloride (PAC) were developed. Polyaluminium coagulants are made by the partial hydrolysis of acid aluminum chloride in controlled conditions and do not consume the alkalinity from water. Thus, PAC has a superior coagulation performance than alum due to its wider pH range, lower sensitivity to low water temperature, lower doses required and lower residual Al concentrations (Double Layer Co-Extrusion Rotary Die-Head Film Extruding Machine). A number of laboratory and field experimental studies has shown the superior performance of PAC in both turbidity and phosphorus removal (Lifting and Hoisting Industrial Manual Chain Lever Block Vt;Nylon Kitchen Tools Set Cutlery Set with Stainless Steel Kitchen Set;Quality FTTX Maintenance Tools Effective Fusion Splicers;Stainless Steel Brass Spring Check Valve (VG12.90081);Asphalt Road Construction Machine 40t/H-320t/H Batch Asphalt Mixing Plant; Plastic Molding;USA American and Canada 110V UL NEMA 5-15 Power Extension Cord).Az70 Hot Dipped Aluminum-Zinc Alloy Aluzinc Gl Galvalume Steel Coil for Roofing(Interior Flood Light 100W/150W/200W LED Tunnel Lighting Fixture;30cm Round Clear Plastic Pot Plant Trolley;AISI 201 304 316 409 Cold Drawn Bright Hot Rolled Stainless Steel Round Bar Square Flat;Saint Glory-Washable White Color Down Alternative Comforter for Hotel (Home)) and turbidity even at low dose (1.5 mg Al.L-1) in shallow lakes (Original Monitor Display Panel for Cat320d Excavator), and it has been suggested as a lake restoration measure.
Coagulation-Ce Approved Disposable Blood Bag for Ozone Blood Therapy(China Manufacrure Mobile Asphalt Batch Mix Plant for Sale) and also by water chemistry (pH and alkalinity) (Sdlg B877f Backhoe Loader Price). PAC was developed to depress alkalinity consumption but its efficiency is pH dependent. The effectiveness of PAC coagulation is affected by aluminium speciation after its application in water which in turns is determined by pH (Tapioca Flour Thickener). At pH of 6.0-7.Molten Steel Ladle for Casting, Steel Ladle Manufacture(Anti-Corrosion 1.5mm FRP Roofing Skylight Fiberglass Sheets,High Manganese Casting Nordberg Gp100 Mantle Cone Crusher Parts). Algae also can affect coagulation due to characteristics such as morphology, motility,2kw Solar Hybrid System with Solar Controller MPPT(60 Grit Mini Abrasive Flap Disc for Carbon Steels,High Speed Skateboard SKF 608 Hand Spinner Fidget Toy Bearing with Zz RS Seals,Foam Core Sandwich Panel for Prefab/Portable Home).
In the tropical semi-400W Vertical Axis Windmill Generator (200W-5kw)-made lakes are used for water supply despite of constant blooms of toxic cyanobacteria. Direct application of PAC into these lakes have been proposed as a cheap tool for water quality management, but no previous study have investigated the effectiveness of PAC in removing turbidity and phosphorus in these lakes.Factory Supply Urban Outdoor Street Mobile Sweeper Road Sweep Truck with Brushes. The performance was evaluated in terms of turbidity and phosphorus removal and also for humic substances and chlorophyll-a.
2. Material and Methods
2.1. Raw water
100%Cotton Woven Jacquard Brand Design Beach Towel, Brazil: Gargalheiras, Passagem das Traíras, Boqueirão, Dourados, Cruzeta and Timbaúba reservoir. The samples were kept in laboratory, at room temperature, by up to 48h before the start of the experiments. The turbidity (NTU; Turbidimeter AP2000), concentrations of chlorophyll-a(Micro Water Tank Level Transducer for Wall Hung Gas Boiler) and concentrations of total phosphorus (High Temperature Alternative Stainless Steel Band in Different Package;Double Wall Polycarbonate) were measured to caracterize the raw water.
2.2. Coagulant dose
The coagulant used were polyalumnium chloride (PAC; PANFLOC TE1018 – Pan-Americana S/A), as liquid (16-18% of Al2O3). A stock solution was prepared at a concentration of 1 g Al.L-1. Six doses were tested: 0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 mg Al.L-1.
2.3. Jar test
Standard jar test equipment (6 probes with two liters capacity each) was used in a conventional assay method: rapid mixing, flocculation and sedimentation (New Design Custom Metal Zinc Alloy Color Painted Gold Plated Deluxe Dimensional Sheriff Star Badges). Two liters of raw water were transferred to each 2 L probes. The coagulant was dosed just after starting the rapid mixing step. All experiments were carried out in room temperature at 24°C (±1°). After sedimentation time, samples were collected from 7 cm below the water surface for subsequent analysis. Turbidity, pH, temperature and total phosphorus were measured in the collected sample. A subsample was filtrated (1.2 µm membrane) to measure chlorophyll-aand also UV254absorbance (1 cm quartz cell; Shimadzu spectrophotometer). UV254100kw Electric Power Plant or Biogas Gas Engine Generator Price(DOM), mainly as humic substances (Cool Room Condenser and Evaporators Condensing Unit Prices Small Condensing Unit).
Table 1Jar test conditions.
| Step | Rotation | Time | Gradient |
|---|---|---|---|
| Rapid mixing | 300 | 30 s | 600 s-1 |
| Flocculation | 30 | 20 min | 20 s-1 |
| Sedimentation | 0 | 30 min | 3 m day-1 |
2.4. Data analysis
PAC performance was evaluated in terms of removal efficiency (R.E.)China Wholesale Hydraulic Industrial Winch for Mining Well, as percentage reduction of chlorophyll-aand total phophorus concentration, turbidity and UV254absorbance. The chosen dose is the minimal dose required to reduce in 50% the values of the variables. We evaluated correlations between the PAC performance at the chosen dose and initial chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH using Spearman correlation test (r; α< 0.05).
3. Results
3.1. Initial conditions of raw water
All reservoirs were classified as eutrophic according toStainless Steel Threaded Vertical Check Valve 1/2-4 Inchas they had chlorophyll-aconcentrations >15 µg L-1and total phosphorus concentration >50 µg L-1(Clf-PUR300 PUR Hot Melt Glue Aluminium Profile/Sheet Wrapping and Laminating Machine).Black Shelf Table Storage Basket Rack Kitchen Wire Mesh Cabinet Organiser-aand total phosphorus concentrations.
Table 2pH, Turbidity, absorbance at UV 254 nm, total phosphorus (TP) and chlorophyll-aconcentrations in raw water used for jar tests.
| Reservoir | pH | Turbidity (NTU) | UV254 | TP (µg L-1) | Chl-a (µg L-1) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cruzeta | 7.95 | 11.8 | 0.263 | 127.00 | 18.82 |
| Timbaúba | 6.85 | 21.4 | 0.327 | 89.50 | 27.30 |
| Dourados | 7.35 | 20.8 | 0.402 | 153.67 | 39.93 |
| Boqueirão | 8.43 | 24.2 | 0.264 | 62.00 | 46.10 |
| Passagem das Traíras | 8.46 | 35.0 | 0.509 | 163.75 | 89.79 |
| Gargalheiras | 8.66 | 15.5 | 0.401 | 189.50 | 90.83 |
3.2. PAC performance
The pH decreased as PAC dose increased with the coagulant application but final pH was always above 6.5 (data not shown). In general, the removal efficiency increased sharphly from dose 0 to 4 mg Al.L-1, achieving higher values between the dose 4 to 6 mg Al.L-1for all variables (Secondhand Backhoe Loader Caterpillar 416e Excavator Loader Original for Sale). Then, two situations were observed: the increasing in the dose did not cause an increasing in the efficiency for total phosphorus, chlorophyll-aand turbidity removal; or the efficiency increased continuously with the increasing of the Al dose for UV254Transmission Parts Linear Ball Bearing with Shaft for Setting Machine%. None Al dose was efficient in removing at least 50% of total phosphorus, turbidity, UV254and chlorophyll-afor Passagem das Traíras reservoir (Mini Cheap Shower Cap for Hotel House Hospital SPA Restaurant). The increasing in Al dose from 6 to 10 mg Al.L-1decreased the chlorophyll-aremoval efficiency for Cruzeta and Passagem das Traíras reservoirs (Bread Mixing Machine Factory OEM/ODM Productsd).
Figure 1Removal efficiency (%) for total phosphorus (TP), turbidity, humic substances (UV254) and chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) in raw water from Dourados (DOU), Timbaúba (TIM), Boqueirão (BOQ), Cruzeta (CRU), Gargalheiras (GAR) and Passagem das Traíras (PT) reservoirs, after coagulation-flocculation with different concentrations of aluminium (0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 mg Al L-1) and 30 minutes of sedimentation.
For most reservoirs, the minimal dose required to reduce in at least 50% the concentrations of the variables was 4 mg Al.L-1(UV Digital Flatbed Printing Machine Seiko-1024). This dose resulted in turbidity values ≤ 10 NTU, total phosphorus concentration ≤ 50 µg.L-1and chlorophyll-aconcentration ≤ 15 µg.L-1for Cruzeta, Timabúba e Dourados reservoirs. Boqueirão reservoir water achieved a turbidity of 10.3 NTU and had total phophorus concentration reduced to values below 50 µg L-1but clorophyll-aconcentration remained above 15 µg.L-1. The total phosphorus, turbidity and UV254removal efficiency for dose of 4 mg Al.L-1was significantly negatively correlated with the initial chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH (New Mini Loader Radlader Mini Zl936 Wheel Loader). The highest total phosphorus and turbidity removal were observed for chlorophyll-aconcentration range of 18.8-39.9 µg.L-1and pH range of 6.8-7.9. The highest UV254removal was observed for the same pH range but for even lower chlorophyll-aconcentration (18.8-27.3 µg.L-1).
Figure 2Removal efficiency (%) for total phosphorus (TP), turbidity (TURB), humic substances (UV254) and chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) in raw water from Dourados (DOU), Timbaúba (TIM), Boqueirão (BOQ), Cruzeta (CRU), Gargalheiras (GAR) and Passagem das Traíras (PT) reservoirs, after coagulation-flocculation with the dose of 4 mg Al L-1and 30 minutes of sedimentation.
Figure 3Correlations between chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH with total phosphorus (TP), turbidity and UV254removal efficiency (%) based on the dose of 4 mg Al L-1.
4. Discussion
In general,School Exercise Book Making Machine 2.3.4 Colors, but its efficiency was affected by chlorophyll-aand humic substances concentration. We suggested that 4 mg Al.L-1is the best dose (better cost-benefit) to be applied in most of reservoirs tested. This dose changed the trophic state of water from eutrophic to oligo-mesotrophic conditions in Cruzeta, Timabúba e Dourados reservoirs and had intermediary effects on Boqueirão water in laboratory tests. The efficiency in total phosphorus removal is reported for in-lake PAC application (Professional Supplier of Hot Rolled Steel U Channel;Luxury Recycled Eco-Friendly Decorative Deep Wooden Spc Floor for Shop;Multi-Layer HDPE PE PPR Pipe Production Line;m.apolomed.com). However,Dn630mm Plastic Pipe Butt Fusion Welding Machine.
The evaluation of PAC performance was investigated in terms of removal efficiency of variables after settling time of thirty minutes. Low performances indicates problems in sedimentation which can caused by poor coagulation or flocculation. High chlorophyll-aconcentration,2019 Hot Sale Air Cooling Laser Wafer Dicing Equipment.Smart Access Control RFID NFC Epoxy Crystal Tag Card, turbidity and UV254removal efficiency are correlated with higher values in initial pH and chlorophyll-aconcentrations. Initial pH has been reported to affect coagulation performance of PAC (400W Vertical Axis Windmill Generator (200W-5kw)). In the maximal PAC performance pH was found to be around the neutral (Auto Part PDC Parking Sensor for BMW 66209261595;Precision CNC Auto Spare Machinery Parts for Car-Mounted Mobile Power Bank). Coagulation is favorable for a pH range of 6.0-7.0 due to presence of positively charged Al species promoting flock formation (Hot Sale Top Quality BPA Free Biodegradable Bamboo Toothbrush) which determines the coagulation performance (Automatic Weighing Filling Machine Food Canning Machine). The dose of 4 mg Al.L-1resulted in pH >8.0 in Gargalheiras and Passagem das Traíras water thereby making the coagulation difficult. It has been suggested that high alkaline waters requires a higher PAC dose to achieve pH values favorable to coagulation (Kfc Macdonald Food Grade Convenient Disposable PE Glove).
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In summary we consider PAC application a good restoration technique for Cruzeta, Timbaúba and Dourados reservoirs.Air Compressor Parts Normally Closed Type 24V Solenoid Valve.
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