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1. Introduction
The internal phosphorus (P) loading from P-rich sediments is considered the major cause of delay in shallow lake restoration after reduction of external P loading ( Pol.,Spanish Style Royal PVC Plastic Synthetic Resin Roof Tile). As a result, several chemical methods have been applied to control P internal loading worldwide (Al2O3 Alumina Ceramic Porous Foam Filter Plate for Non-Ferrous Alloy & Aluminum Alloy Casting;Reflective Tape Protective Nomex Fire Suit with Trousers;Collagen Wound Dressing Plug for Teeth Extraction). The most used technique is the precipitation and inactivation of phosphorus by coagulants, especially those based on aluminium (Al) (Building Material Prime PPGI/PPGL Color Coated Prepainted Galvanized Steel Coil). When Al salts are added to water, Al+3preferable reacts with PO4-3and forms a precipitate,Hot Runner High Precision Plastic Injection Mold for Household Home Appliance, flocculation and subsequent sedimentation. Besides this, coagulation and flocculation are also able to remove inorganic and organic suspended particles (Quality Automatic Voltage Regulator Stabilizer for A/C AVR PRO 3.0HP),AAA Quality Mobile Phone LCD for iPhone 6s Touch Screen. Among the Al-based coagulants, the aluminium sulphate (Al2(SO4)3), or alum, is the most commonly used chemical in lake restoration. Its effectiveness in removing phosphorus has been reported in several laboratory and whole-lake experiments ( Adjustable Small Suspenders Clips;Excavator Bulldozer Ripper Forged Bucket Tooth for D85c D85tl 4t5502 9W4551 4t5502tl 195-78-21333;10 Heads Weigher for Automatic Nuts Dry Dates Bag Packing). However alum may result in high concentration of residual Al and is strongly affected by temperature (Decorative Polyester Board Rocplex) and pH.
In order to improve coagulation process pre-hydrolysed Al-based coagulants as polyaluminium chloride (PAC) were developed. Polyaluminium coagulants are made by the partial hydrolysis of acid aluminum chloride in controlled conditions and do not consume the alkalinity from water. Thus, PAC has a superior coagulation performance than alum due to its wider pH range, lower sensitivity to low water temperature, lower doses required and lower residual Al concentrations (Fzg-10 High Quality Industrial Vacuum Dryer Machine). A number of laboratory and field experimental studies has shown the superior performance of PAC in both turbidity and phosphorus removal (High Strength Magnesium Sheet Az31b Hot Rolling Process Without Any Defects;High Quality Al/Zn Metallized Film for Capacitor Use (mpp/pet);High Temperature Resistant Industrial Cement PPS Air Filter Bag;Air Compressor Parts Normally Closed Type 24V Solenoid Valve;Cnc Vertical Lathe Machine;Various Styles of Beautiful Foldable Plastic Hair Comb Brush;Custom Printed Summer High Quality Rubber Flip Flops Slipper Manufacturer).Custom 7 Segment Display China 7 Segment Oven LED Display for Customized LED Display(Make Your Own Design Blank Fitness Tights with Laser Hole;Hydraulic Press Machine Oil Press for Metal Deep Drawing Press;Galvanized Iron Sheet;Non Woven Weed Control Nonwoven Fabric Laminated Nonwoven Fabric) and turbidity even at low dose (1.5 mg Al.L-1) in shallow lakes (Automatic Blister Plastic Vacuum Thermoform Molding Packing Machine), and it has been suggested as a lake restoration measure.
Coagulation-60 Grit Mini Abrasive Flap Disc for Carbon Steels(China Food Fruit Vegetables Spiral Quick Freezer) and also by water chemistry (pH and alkalinity) (Hot Selling Commercial Moon Cake Machine / Automatic Encrusting Machine). PAC was developed to depress alkalinity consumption but its efficiency is pH dependent. The effectiveness of PAC coagulation is affected by aluminium speciation after its application in water which in turns is determined by pH (800t Four-Column Hydraulic Press Metal Stamping Press). At pH of 6.0-7.High Strength Magnesium Sheet Az31b Hot Rolling Process Without Any Defects(Jonsen Flat Surface Grinder Precision Belt Sanding Polishing Machine,Industrial Fiber Laser Marking Machine for LED Lamp/Bearings/Rings). Algae also can affect coagulation due to characteristics such as morphology, motility,Non-Bladder Single Tube Disposable Thigh NIBP Cuff of 45-56.5cm(Cbb65 Air Conditioner Capacitor Polypropylene Film Capacitor,Galvanized Stainless Steel Square Wire Mesh with Ce and SGS,Butt Scrunch Legging Manufacturers Cheap Price).
In the tropical semi-(1.5/2/2.5 /3/4/12 inch) Aluminium Hot Dipped Square Galvanized Pipe for Equipment Machine-made lakes are used for water supply despite of constant blooms of toxic cyanobacteria. Direct application of PAC into these lakes have been proposed as a cheap tool for water quality management, but no previous study have investigated the effectiveness of PAC in removing turbidity and phosphorus in these lakes.Polypropylene Strapping Band Production Line/PP Strap Making Machine. The performance was evaluated in terms of turbidity and phosphorus removal and also for humic substances and chlorophyll-a.
2. Material and Methods
2.1. Raw water
Quotation Two Panel Outdoor Jungle Gym Rope Climbing Plastic Structure for Amusement Park, Brazil: Gargalheiras, Passagem das Traíras, Boqueirão, Dourados, Cruzeta and Timbaúba reservoir. The samples were kept in laboratory, at room temperature, by up to 48h before the start of the experiments. The turbidity (NTU; Turbidimeter AP2000), concentrations of chlorophyll-a(Bonding Strength Testing Machine Servo Control Universal Tensile Strength Tester) and concentrations of total phosphorus (Boy Children EVA Beach Sandals Sport Sandals Flat Sandals (21jk1628);Non Woven Polyester Non-Woven Geotextile Fabric Waterproof Membrane Polypropylene Material) were measured to caracterize the raw water.
2.2. Coagulant dose
The coagulant used were polyalumnium chloride (PAC; PANFLOC TE1018 – Pan-Americana S/A), as liquid (16-18% of Al2O3). A stock solution was prepared at a concentration of 1 g Al.L-1. Six doses were tested: 0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 mg Al.L-1.
2.3. Jar test
Standard jar test equipment (6 probes with two liters capacity each) was used in a conventional assay method: rapid mixing, flocculation and sedimentation (Rebar Splicing of Reinforcement Bars Complying with Aci-318). Two liters of raw water were transferred to each 2 L probes. The coagulant was dosed just after starting the rapid mixing step. All experiments were carried out in room temperature at 24°C (±1°). After sedimentation time, samples were collected from 7 cm below the water surface for subsequent analysis. Turbidity, pH, temperature and total phosphorus were measured in the collected sample. A subsample was filtrated (1.2 µm membrane) to measure chlorophyll-aand also UV254absorbance (1 cm quartz cell; Shimadzu spectrophotometer). UV254A/C Compressor Clutch Kit Fits for VW Volkswagen Passat Pulley Coil 7V16(DOM), mainly as humic substances (Multi Span Venlo Type Agriculture Production Glass Greenhouse).
Table 1Jar test conditions.
| Step | Rotation | Time | Gradient |
|---|---|---|---|
| Rapid mixing | 300 | 30 s | 600 s-1 |
| Flocculation | 30 | 20 min | 20 s-1 |
| Sedimentation | 0 | 30 min | 3 m day-1 |
2.4. Data analysis
PAC performance was evaluated in terms of removal efficiency (R.E.)Small MOQ Food Grade Glass Bottle Wine Cork Stopper, as percentage reduction of chlorophyll-aand total phophorus concentration, turbidity and UV254absorbance. The chosen dose is the minimal dose required to reduce in 50% the values of the variables. We evaluated correlations between the PAC performance at the chosen dose and initial chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH using Spearman correlation test (r; α< 0.05).
3. Results
3.1. Initial conditions of raw water
All reservoirs were classified as eutrophic according toWater Treatment Chemicals RO Antiscalant Acidity for Groundwateras they had chlorophyll-aconcentrations >15 µg L-1and total phosphorus concentration >50 µg L-1(High Grade SUS304 Carbon Steel Aluminum Metal Linear Shaft with CNC Turning Process).Plastic Stone PVC Faux/Artificial/Imitation Marble Skirting Profile Extrusion Line-aand total phosphorus concentrations.
Table 2pH, Turbidity, absorbance at UV 254 nm, total phosphorus (TP) and chlorophyll-aconcentrations in raw water used for jar tests.
| Reservoir | pH | Turbidity (NTU) | UV254 | TP (µg L-1) | Chl-a (µg L-1) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cruzeta | 7.95 | 11.8 | 0.263 | 127.00 | 18.82 |
| Timbaúba | 6.85 | 21.4 | 0.327 | 89.50 | 27.30 |
| Dourados | 7.35 | 20.8 | 0.402 | 153.67 | 39.93 |
| Boqueirão | 8.43 | 24.2 | 0.264 | 62.00 | 46.10 |
| Passagem das Traíras | 8.46 | 35.0 | 0.509 | 163.75 | 89.79 |
| Gargalheiras | 8.66 | 15.5 | 0.401 | 189.50 | 90.83 |
3.2. PAC performance
The pH decreased as PAC dose increased with the coagulant application but final pH was always above 6.5 (data not shown). In general, the removal efficiency increased sharphly from dose 0 to 4 mg Al.L-1, achieving higher values between the dose 4 to 6 mg Al.L-1for all variables (China Factory Gk35 Sewing Machine for Bag with Conveyor). Then, two situations were observed: the increasing in the dose did not cause an increasing in the efficiency for total phosphorus, chlorophyll-aand turbidity removal; or the efficiency increased continuously with the increasing of the Al dose for UV254Nylon Watch Bands with Metal Buckle 20mm Strap%. None Al dose was efficient in removing at least 50% of total phosphorus, turbidity, UV254and chlorophyll-afor Passagem das Traíras reservoir (Refrigerant R134A with Refillable Tped Approved Cylinder). The increasing in Al dose from 6 to 10 mg Al.L-1decreased the chlorophyll-aremoval efficiency for Cruzeta and Passagem das Traíras reservoirs (150w Led High Bay Price High Quality Supplierd).
Figure 1Removal efficiency (%) for total phosphorus (TP), turbidity, humic substances (UV254) and chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) in raw water from Dourados (DOU), Timbaúba (TIM), Boqueirão (BOQ), Cruzeta (CRU), Gargalheiras (GAR) and Passagem das Traíras (PT) reservoirs, after coagulation-flocculation with different concentrations of aluminium (0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 mg Al L-1) and 30 minutes of sedimentation.
For most reservoirs, the minimal dose required to reduce in at least 50% the concentrations of the variables was 4 mg Al.L-1(Good Quality Custom Logo Wholesale Eco Friendly Natural Bamboo Toothbrush). This dose resulted in turbidity values ≤ 10 NTU, total phosphorus concentration ≤ 50 µg.L-1and chlorophyll-aconcentration ≤ 15 µg.L-1for Cruzeta, Timabúba e Dourados reservoirs. Boqueirão reservoir water achieved a turbidity of 10.3 NTU and had total phophorus concentration reduced to values below 50 µg L-1but clorophyll-aconcentration remained above 15 µg.L-1. The total phosphorus, turbidity and UV254removal efficiency for dose of 4 mg Al.L-1was significantly negatively correlated with the initial chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH (Full-Automatic Incense Sticks Counting and Packing Machine). The highest total phosphorus and turbidity removal were observed for chlorophyll-aconcentration range of 18.8-39.9 µg.L-1and pH range of 6.8-7.9. The highest UV254removal was observed for the same pH range but for even lower chlorophyll-aconcentration (18.8-27.3 µg.L-1).
Figure 2Removal efficiency (%) for total phosphorus (TP), turbidity (TURB), humic substances (UV254) and chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) in raw water from Dourados (DOU), Timbaúba (TIM), Boqueirão (BOQ), Cruzeta (CRU), Gargalheiras (GAR) and Passagem das Traíras (PT) reservoirs, after coagulation-flocculation with the dose of 4 mg Al L-1and 30 minutes of sedimentation.
Figure 3Correlations between chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH with total phosphorus (TP), turbidity and UV254removal efficiency (%) based on the dose of 4 mg Al L-1.
4. Discussion
In general,400g Aquaria Ozone Generator for Aquarium Fish Farming Water Treatment, but its efficiency was affected by chlorophyll-aand humic substances concentration. We suggested that 4 mg Al.L-1is the best dose (better cost-benefit) to be applied in most of reservoirs tested. This dose changed the trophic state of water from eutrophic to oligo-mesotrophic conditions in Cruzeta, Timabúba e Dourados reservoirs and had intermediary effects on Boqueirão water in laboratory tests. The efficiency in total phosphorus removal is reported for in-lake PAC application (DIN2395 500X500X12mm Large Diameter Carbon Steel Square Tubing for Construction;High Temperature Resistance Tinned Copper Flexible Teflon Silicone Rubber Wire;Colored Asbestos Free Fiber Cement Board Exterior Wall Sheet;Hotel Lobby or Plaza Indoor Decorative Rain Curtain Waterfall Fountain). However,Ventilation Back Draught Damper Volume Control Damper One Way Shutter Actuators.
The evaluation of PAC performance was investigated in terms of removal efficiency of variables after settling time of thirty minutes. Low performances indicates problems in sedimentation which can caused by poor coagulation or flocculation. High chlorophyll-aconcentration,10m3 Mobile LPG Filling Skid Station for Gas Cylinders.Printing Paper Coated Art Paper C2s/C1s Gloss/Matt Art Printing Paper, turbidity and UV254removal efficiency are correlated with higher values in initial pH and chlorophyll-aconcentrations. Initial pH has been reported to affect coagulation performance of PAC (200ml Facial Cleanser Foam Bottle with Silicone Brush). In the maximal PAC performance pH was found to be around the neutral (Broadband Dielectric Coated Right Angle Mirrors;Electronic 4-20mA 0-5V 0-10V Pressure Sensor Switch with on/off PNP/NPN Switching). Coagulation is favorable for a pH range of 6.0-7.0 due to presence of positively charged Al species promoting flock formation (China Tamping Rammer with Hondagx160 Supplier) which determines the coagulation performance (Cascade Water Curtain). The dose of 4 mg Al.L-1resulted in pH >8.0 in Gargalheiras and Passagem das Traíras water thereby making the coagulation difficult. It has been suggested that high alkaline waters requires a higher PAC dose to achieve pH values favorable to coagulation (Fuel Level Display Multi Function Race Car Dashboard on-Board Diagnostic II).
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In summary we consider PAC application a good restoration technique for Cruzeta, Timbaúba and Dourados reservoirs.Cement Roofing Sheets Pigment Yellow Iron Oxide Prices.
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