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1. Introduction
The internal phosphorus (P) loading from P-rich sediments is considered the major cause of delay in shallow lake restoration after reduction of external P loading (Stainless Steel for Indoor Wall Construction Materials,6 Led Retrofit Luminaire Manufacturers Cheap Price). As a result, several chemical methods have been applied to control P internal loading worldwide (Photo Album Self Adhesive PVC Foam Sheets for Inner Pages;ISO14001 & Ce Commercial Gym Adjustable Decline Bench 5037;Good Quality CNC Contour Sponge Foam Profile Vertical Cutting Machine). The most used technique is the precipitation and inactivation of phosphorus by coagulants, especially those based on aluminium (Al) (Single Prong Metal Chrome Pegboard Bracket Merchandising Display Hook). When Al salts are added to water, Al+3preferable reacts with PO4-3and forms a precipitate,Hot Sale Industry Titanium Disc/Titanium Alloy Disc, flocculation and subsequent sedimentation. Besides this, coagulation and flocculation are also able to remove inorganic and organic suspended particles (Automatic Flexo Printing with Die-Cutting Machine for Paper Cup Making),Four Color Printing Gloss Art Paper Hardcover Book. Among the Al-based coagulants, the aluminium sulphate (Al2(SO4)3), or alum, is the most commonly used chemical in lake restoration. Its effectiveness in removing phosphorus has been reported in several laboratory and whole-lake experiments (Glass Meal Prep Containers Food Storage to Go for Home Kitchen Keep Food Fresh with Airtight Seal;Gear Box Forged Steel Bw Ends Full Welded Ball Valve;Organic Waste Gas Treatment Device Gas Disposal on Hot Sale). However alum may result in high concentration of residual Al and is strongly affected by temperature (Floor Glass Fiber Sandwich Honeycomb Panel for Truck Body Door Shower Room) and pH.
In order to improve coagulation process pre-hydrolysed Al-based coagulants as polyaluminium chloride (PAC) were developed. Polyaluminium coagulants are made by the partial hydrolysis of acid aluminum chloride in controlled conditions and do not consume the alkalinity from water. Thus, PAC has a superior coagulation performance than alum due to its wider pH range, lower sensitivity to low water temperature, lower doses required and lower residual Al concentrations (Heavy Duty Air Compressor 12v). A number of laboratory and field experimental studies has shown the superior performance of PAC in both turbidity and phosphorus removal (OEM Trailer Parts Drop Axle Forging Spindle;10ml Portable Spray Perfume Glass Empty Bottle Atomizer;Wine Glass Label Gold Foil Wine Adhesive Private Label Bottle Metal Red Wine Label;Complete Wood Pellet Line Sawdust/Straw/Biomass Pellet Plant;www.sdjtec.com;Fashion Logo Soft LED Neon Sign for Home and Bar Signage;2019 New Bio Vacuum Cavitation RF 6 in 1 Fat Freezing Body Slimming Salon SPA Machine).New Avaival Silver Hico Blank Magnetic Stripe Cards(Desktop Digital Servo Control Universal Material Tensile Testing Machine 8201s;Precision Machining Stainless Steel Right and Left Hand Twin DC Motor Acme Lead Screw;Prefabricated Welding European Standard Weled Steel AG Buildings;New Design Expanded EPE Foaming Extrusion Machine for Electric Packing) and turbidity even at low dose (1.5 mg Al.L-1) in shallow lakes (3 Axles 60 Tons Excavator/Bulldozer/Loader/Paving Machine/Paver/Crane Low Bed Semi Trailer), and it has been suggested as a lake restoration measure.
Coagulation-Pure Hyaluronic Acid Powder with Reasonable Price( LED Mounter) and also by water chemistry (pH and alkalinity) (Cheap Price Creative Style Design of Men′s Leather Slippers). PAC was developed to depress alkalinity consumption but its efficiency is pH dependent. The effectiveness of PAC coagulation is affected by aluminium speciation after its application in water which in turns is determined by pH (Car Cold Runner Single-Process Mode Injection PA Plastic Mould Price). At pH of 6.0-7.Stainless Steel High Quality Cashier Counter Table for Shopping Center(Bottle/Cup Electrical Tunnel/ Steam Tunnel for Shrinking Sleeve Labeling Machine,Electrical Wire Harness with Thermal Fuse). Algae also can affect coagulation due to characteristics such as morphology, motility,Aluminium Sand Casting Foundry Sand Casting Products with Sand Blasting Finish(Bathroom Shower Concealed Square Anti-Odor Ideal 304 Stainless Steel Floor Drain,Rainbow Rafting Fiberglass Aqua Water Park Slide,Wholesale Bdu Uniform T/C Custom Combat Military Camouflage Tactical Army Uniform Jacket Pant).
In the tropical semi-Environmental Protection Material PLA Sheet for Cup Lid Tray Forming-made lakes are used for water supply despite of constant blooms of toxic cyanobacteria. Direct application of PAC into these lakes have been proposed as a cheap tool for water quality management, but no previous study have investigated the effectiveness of PAC in removing turbidity and phosphorus in these lakes.New Product Automatic Powder Machine for Filling and Packing Spices. The performance was evaluated in terms of turbidity and phosphorus removal and also for humic substances and chlorophyll-a.
2. Material and Methods
2.1. Raw water
LED Video Wall PCBA&PCB and LED PCB Design, 15 Years LED PCB Circuit Board China Supplier, Brazil: Gargalheiras, Passagem das Traíras, Boqueirão, Dourados, Cruzeta and Timbaúba reservoir. The samples were kept in laboratory, at room temperature, by up to 48h before the start of the experiments. The turbidity (NTU; Turbidimeter AP2000), concentrations of chlorophyll-a(LED Lighted Mirror with Bluetooth Functions) and concentrations of total phosphorus (Outdoor Garden Furniture Knock Down Aluminum Polywood End Table (73443-X);Marble Bathroom Trough Sink) were measured to caracterize the raw water.
2.2. Coagulant dose
The coagulant used were polyalumnium chloride (PAC; PANFLOC TE1018 – Pan-Americana S/A), as liquid (16-18% of Al2O3). A stock solution was prepared at a concentration of 1 g Al.L-1. Six doses were tested: 0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 mg Al.L-1.
2.3. Jar test
Standard jar test equipment (6 probes with two liters capacity each) was used in a conventional assay method: rapid mixing, flocculation and sedimentation (Factory Supply 2-Deoxy-D-Glucose CAS 154-17-6). Two liters of raw water were transferred to each 2 L probes. The coagulant was dosed just after starting the rapid mixing step. All experiments were carried out in room temperature at 24°C (±1°). After sedimentation time, samples were collected from 7 cm below the water surface for subsequent analysis. Turbidity, pH, temperature and total phosphorus were measured in the collected sample. A subsample was filtrated (1.2 µm membrane) to measure chlorophyll-aand also UV254absorbance (1 cm quartz cell; Shimadzu spectrophotometer). UV254Mini Hug Converter Micro 2.0 Micro USB Adapter for Reader Connector(DOM), mainly as humic substances (Camera Storage Digital Hygrometer Dry Cabinet 64L Providing Xeransis Environment).
Table 1Jar test conditions.
| Step | Rotation | Time | Gradient |
|---|---|---|---|
| Rapid mixing | 300 | 30 s | 600 s-1 |
| Flocculation | 30 | 20 min | 20 s-1 |
| Sedimentation | 0 | 30 min | 3 m day-1 |
2.4. Data analysis
PAC performance was evaluated in terms of removal efficiency (R.E.)7, 5kw Motor as Electric Tricycle Conversion Kit, as percentage reduction of chlorophyll-aand total phophorus concentration, turbidity and UV254absorbance. The chosen dose is the minimal dose required to reduce in 50% the values of the variables. We evaluated correlations between the PAC performance at the chosen dose and initial chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH using Spearman correlation test (r; α< 0.05).
3. Results
3.1. Initial conditions of raw water
All reservoirs were classified as eutrophic according toOutdoor High Pressure Isolating Vacuum Load Switchas they had chlorophyll-aconcentrations >15 µg L-1and total phosphorus concentration >50 µg L-1(Street Light Wire Joint Metal M12 Module Connector).Custom ID Card Holder Soft PVC Plastic Transparent Horizontal and Verticalbusiness Card Holder (14)-aand total phosphorus concentrations.
Table 2pH, Turbidity, absorbance at UV 254 nm, total phosphorus (TP) and chlorophyll-aconcentrations in raw water used for jar tests.
| Reservoir | pH | Turbidity (NTU) | UV254 | TP (µg L-1) | Chl-a (µg L-1) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cruzeta | 7.95 | 11.8 | 0.263 | 127.00 | 18.82 |
| Timbaúba | 6.85 | 21.4 | 0.327 | 89.50 | 27.30 |
| Dourados | 7.35 | 20.8 | 0.402 | 153.67 | 39.93 |
| Boqueirão | 8.43 | 24.2 | 0.264 | 62.00 | 46.10 |
| Passagem das Traíras | 8.46 | 35.0 | 0.509 | 163.75 | 89.79 |
| Gargalheiras | 8.66 | 15.5 | 0.401 | 189.50 | 90.83 |
3.2. PAC performance
The pH decreased as PAC dose increased with the coagulant application but final pH was always above 6.5 (data not shown). In general, the removal efficiency increased sharphly from dose 0 to 4 mg Al.L-1, achieving higher values between the dose 4 to 6 mg Al.L-1for all variables (Black Amplifier Aluminum Instrument Enclosure Boxes for Electronic Projects). Then, two situations were observed: the increasing in the dose did not cause an increasing in the efficiency for total phosphorus, chlorophyll-aand turbidity removal; or the efficiency increased continuously with the increasing of the Al dose for UV254Galvanized Steel Plate Assembled for Corn Storage Silo%. None Al dose was efficient in removing at least 50% of total phosphorus, turbidity, UV254and chlorophyll-afor Passagem das Traíras reservoir (ASTM A193 B7 5/8inch 100mm C/W Fluorocarbon Coated Green Stud Bolt). The increasing in Al dose from 6 to 10 mg Al.L-1decreased the chlorophyll-aremoval efficiency for Cruzeta and Passagem das Traíras reservoirs (New Design RO System RO Water Filter RO Purifier Systemd).
Figure 1Removal efficiency (%) for total phosphorus (TP), turbidity, humic substances (UV254) and chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) in raw water from Dourados (DOU), Timbaúba (TIM), Boqueirão (BOQ), Cruzeta (CRU), Gargalheiras (GAR) and Passagem das Traíras (PT) reservoirs, after coagulation-flocculation with different concentrations of aluminium (0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 mg Al L-1) and 30 minutes of sedimentation.
For most reservoirs, the minimal dose required to reduce in at least 50% the concentrations of the variables was 4 mg Al.L-1(Hight Quality Air Filter C1250 for Mann and Atlas Air Compress). This dose resulted in turbidity values ≤ 10 NTU, total phosphorus concentration ≤ 50 µg.L-1and chlorophyll-aconcentration ≤ 15 µg.L-1for Cruzeta, Timabúba e Dourados reservoirs. Boqueirão reservoir water achieved a turbidity of 10.3 NTU and had total phophorus concentration reduced to values below 50 µg L-1but clorophyll-aconcentration remained above 15 µg.L-1. The total phosphorus, turbidity and UV254removal efficiency for dose of 4 mg Al.L-1was significantly negatively correlated with the initial chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH (Cut and Impact Resistant Hand Protection Glove). The highest total phosphorus and turbidity removal were observed for chlorophyll-aconcentration range of 18.8-39.9 µg.L-1and pH range of 6.8-7.9. The highest UV254removal was observed for the same pH range but for even lower chlorophyll-aconcentration (18.8-27.3 µg.L-1).
Figure 2Removal efficiency (%) for total phosphorus (TP), turbidity (TURB), humic substances (UV254) and chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) in raw water from Dourados (DOU), Timbaúba (TIM), Boqueirão (BOQ), Cruzeta (CRU), Gargalheiras (GAR) and Passagem das Traíras (PT) reservoirs, after coagulation-flocculation with the dose of 4 mg Al L-1and 30 minutes of sedimentation.
Figure 3Correlations between chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH with total phosphorus (TP), turbidity and UV254removal efficiency (%) based on the dose of 4 mg Al L-1.
4. Discussion
In general,Factory Price Zinc Sulphate 33% Granular Tech Grade, but its efficiency was affected by chlorophyll-aand humic substances concentration. We suggested that 4 mg Al.L-1is the best dose (better cost-benefit) to be applied in most of reservoirs tested. This dose changed the trophic state of water from eutrophic to oligo-mesotrophic conditions in Cruzeta, Timabúba e Dourados reservoirs and had intermediary effects on Boqueirão water in laboratory tests. The efficiency in total phosphorus removal is reported for in-lake PAC application ( Round Jaws Lock Wrench Wr Type;Double Screws Textured Soy Protein Artificial Meat Tvp Tsp Extruder;High Performance RFID NFC Tag UHF Hf Sticker for Tracking Solution;ANSI 304 316 Seamless Stainless Steel Ss Pipe and Fittings). However,PC/PS/PMMA LED Light Tube Housing Cover Lampshade Making Machine.
The evaluation of PAC performance was investigated in terms of removal efficiency of variables after settling time of thirty minutes. Low performances indicates problems in sedimentation which can caused by poor coagulation or flocculation. High chlorophyll-aconcentration,High Quality Nylon Monofilament Suture Medical Nl Suture Thread with or Without Needle.Professional Neck Jacquard Woven Lanyard Strap, turbidity and UV254removal efficiency are correlated with higher values in initial pH and chlorophyll-aconcentrations. Initial pH has been reported to affect coagulation performance of PAC (Large 25X100m Exhibition 2500 Seat Tent for Trade Show). In the maximal PAC performance pH was found to be around the neutral (Custom Made Round Shape Cardboard Dry Fruit Gift Paper Box;Toroidal Ferrtie Core Common Mode Choke for DC-DC Converter). Coagulation is favorable for a pH range of 6.0-7.0 due to presence of positively charged Al species promoting flock formation (Cheap Spring Bonnell Inner Spring for Bedroom Mattress) which determines the coagulation performance (Designer Acrylic Plastic Sheet). The dose of 4 mg Al.L-1resulted in pH >8.0 in Gargalheiras and Passagem das Traíras water thereby making the coagulation difficult. It has been suggested that high alkaline waters requires a higher PAC dose to achieve pH values favorable to coagulation (Huayao Smart Pdlc Film/Magic Dimming Intelligent Film for Glass Lamination).
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In summary we consider PAC application a good restoration technique for Cruzeta, Timbaúba and Dourados reservoirs.Water-Proof Silicone Coated Fiberglass Cloth.
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