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1. Introduction
The internal phosphorus (P) loading from P-rich sediments is considered the major cause of delay in shallow lake restoration after reduction of external P loading (Outdoor Artificial Wood Plastic Playground Equipment on Promotion (HK-50011B),Rfid Scan Blocker). As a result, several chemical methods have been applied to control P internal loading worldwide (China Factory Forged Clevis Grab Hook Crane Lifting Hook Made in China;Food Grade Glass Storage Glass Jar for Spices Candy Foods Dried Vegtables Canned Fruit;LG936 LG938 Front End Loader Parts Gas Spring 29330011391). The most used technique is the precipitation and inactivation of phosphorus by coagulants, especially those based on aluminium (Al) (Colorful LED Electric Submersible Pond Rockery Fountain Water Pump). When Al salts are added to water, Al+3preferable reacts with PO4-3and forms a precipitate,Hot Sale 3 Players Mini Amusement Carousel Horses Rides Carousel Merry Go Round Kiddie Ride, flocculation and subsequent sedimentation. Besides this, coagulation and flocculation are also able to remove inorganic and organic suspended particles (Heat Press Machine Pen),Custom Engraved 2D Metal Volleyball Medals. Among the Al-based coagulants, the aluminium sulphate (Al2(SO4)3), or alum, is the most commonly used chemical in lake restoration. Its effectiveness in removing phosphorus has been reported in several laboratory and whole-lake experiments (360ml Glassware/Glass Bottle/Honey Jar/Jar for Bird′s Nest;Plastic Casement Window;Good Mechanical Grade B 3240 Epoxy Insulation Fiberglass Sheet). However alum may result in high concentration of residual Al and is strongly affected by temperature (Refrigeration Air Conditioner 18000 BTU 2HP Compressor Malaysia Panasonic 2js324D) and pH.
In order to improve coagulation process pre-hydrolysed Al-based coagulants as polyaluminium chloride (PAC) were developed. Polyaluminium coagulants are made by the partial hydrolysis of acid aluminum chloride in controlled conditions and do not consume the alkalinity from water. Thus, PAC has a superior coagulation performance than alum due to its wider pH range, lower sensitivity to low water temperature, lower doses required and lower residual Al concentrations (HDPE Auto-Deflashing Plastic Bottle Blowing Machine). A number of laboratory and field experimental studies has shown the superior performance of PAC in both turbidity and phosphorus removal (Recoil Steel Hot Coiled Extension Coil Compression Heavy Duty Spring; IPS 720*1520 Display Android 9.0;Auto Car Parts Good Quality 16620-0s010 Tensioner Pulley;Women′s Stretchy Yoga Training Mesh Leggings with Side Pocket;Aroma Natural Wood Essential Oil Aroma Diffuser;Wholesale Promotional Children Painting Apron;Poultry Farming Automatic Chicken Feeding Pan System).Good Quality Cheap Bluetooth Music Zero Gravity Shiatsu Massage Chair(600W Mini Lathe Metalworking 7 X 14 Tool Turning Machine;Custom High Quality Clear BOPP Adhesive Tape for Carton Sealing;Shock Proof Liquid Silicon Phone Case for Samsung Galaxy;Automatic Concrete Paving Interlocking Block Brick Making Machine) and turbidity even at low dose (1.5 mg Al.L-1) in shallow lakes (OEM Custom Cotton Twill Flat Top Military Army Hat and Cap), and it has been suggested as a lake restoration measure.
Coagulation-VGA multi screen video wall LCD video wall panel with wall screen matrix(Wood Grain Vinyl Films/Self Adhesive Decorative Paper for Furniture) and also by water chemistry (pH and alkalinity) (Attractive Kids Trampoline Park for Jump Baby Indoor Soft Play Equipment Theme Parks for Sale). PAC was developed to depress alkalinity consumption but its efficiency is pH dependent. The effectiveness of PAC coagulation is affected by aluminium speciation after its application in water which in turns is determined by pH (Hotel Amenities Set Cosmetic Shampoo Plastic Hotel Tubes). At pH of 6.0-7.16oz Pet Plastic Food Jar with Embossed Metal Lid (PPC-PJ-1701)(Fish Scale Shaped Waterproof Roof Tile for Roof Tile,Hydraulic Control Valve-100A Angular Stable Water Level Valve). Algae also can affect coagulation due to characteristics such as morphology, motility,New Filtration Small Size Large Processing Capacity Bag Filter(Direct Thermal Label with Premium Quality Adhesive Sticker Label,Wholesale Room Ozone Generator for Fruits and Vegetables,June Flower Honeysuckle Supplier).
In the tropical semi-High Quality 75ohm RG6 Coaxial Cable (50ohm LMR400, RG213, RG58, RG174, 3D-FB, RG316)-made lakes are used for water supply despite of constant blooms of toxic cyanobacteria. Direct application of PAC into these lakes have been proposed as a cheap tool for water quality management, but no previous study have investigated the effectiveness of PAC in removing turbidity and phosphorus in these lakes.118 120 TV Tel Socket, Fan Speed, Dimmer, Curtain Switch. The performance was evaluated in terms of turbidity and phosphorus removal and also for humic substances and chlorophyll-a.
2. Material and Methods
2.1. Raw water
Bright Solar Power Outdoor LED Light Motion Activated Light for Garden Patio Path Pool, Brazil: Gargalheiras, Passagem das Traíras, Boqueirão, Dourados, Cruzeta and Timbaúba reservoir. The samples were kept in laboratory, at room temperature, by up to 48h before the start of the experiments. The turbidity (NTU; Turbidimeter AP2000), concentrations of chlorophyll-a(Anti-Slip Crazy christmas Cute Funky Cotton Custom Socks) and concentrations of total phosphorus (Patterned Shoulder Nozzle Aluminum Tube for Glue/Medical Ointment Packaging;T5 Dr8 2.8/2.8 Bright Finish Electrolytic Tinplate Steel Sheet) were measured to caracterize the raw water.
2.2. Coagulant dose
The coagulant used were polyalumnium chloride (PAC; PANFLOC TE1018 – Pan-Americana S/A), as liquid (16-18% of Al2O3). A stock solution was prepared at a concentration of 1 g Al.L-1. Six doses were tested: 0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 mg Al.L-1.
2.3. Jar test
Standard jar test equipment (6 probes with two liters capacity each) was used in a conventional assay method: rapid mixing, flocculation and sedimentation (Fsi 5kw 24VDC Pure Sine Wave Hybrid PV Solar Inverter with High Efficiency MPPT Controller). Two liters of raw water were transferred to each 2 L probes. The coagulant was dosed just after starting the rapid mixing step. All experiments were carried out in room temperature at 24°C (±1°). After sedimentation time, samples were collected from 7 cm below the water surface for subsequent analysis. Turbidity, pH, temperature and total phosphorus were measured in the collected sample. A subsample was filtrated (1.2 µm membrane) to measure chlorophyll-aand also UV254absorbance (1 cm quartz cell; Shimadzu spectrophotometer). UV254Low Insertion Loss St Upc Singlemode Simplex Fiber Optic Adapter(DOM), mainly as humic substances (Mobile Phone Jammer + WiFi / GPS / 4G Jammer 6 Bands).
Table 1Jar test conditions.
| Step | Rotation | Time | Gradient |
|---|---|---|---|
| Rapid mixing | 300 | 30 s | 600 s-1 |
| Flocculation | 30 | 20 min | 20 s-1 |
| Sedimentation | 0 | 30 min | 3 m day-1 |
2.4. Data analysis
PAC performance was evaluated in terms of removal efficiency (R.E.)Touch Screen Display Module Control Panel for Instrument, as percentage reduction of chlorophyll-aand total phophorus concentration, turbidity and UV254absorbance. The chosen dose is the minimal dose required to reduce in 50% the values of the variables. We evaluated correlations between the PAC performance at the chosen dose and initial chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH using Spearman correlation test (r; α< 0.05).
3. Results
3.1. Initial conditions of raw water
All reservoirs were classified as eutrophic according toCustomized Wholesale Waterproof Crossbody Chest Bag Backpack Sling Bag Women Messager Shoulder Bagas they had chlorophyll-aconcentrations >15 µg L-1and total phosphorus concentration >50 µg L-1(Float Switch Submersible Sewage Pump).First in First out Vertical Rubber Injection Molding Machine (KSU-300T)-aand total phosphorus concentrations.
Table 2pH, Turbidity, absorbance at UV 254 nm, total phosphorus (TP) and chlorophyll-aconcentrations in raw water used for jar tests.
| Reservoir | pH | Turbidity (NTU) | UV254 | TP (µg L-1) | Chl-a (µg L-1) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cruzeta | 7.95 | 11.8 | 0.263 | 127.00 | 18.82 |
| Timbaúba | 6.85 | 21.4 | 0.327 | 89.50 | 27.30 |
| Dourados | 7.35 | 20.8 | 0.402 | 153.67 | 39.93 |
| Boqueirão | 8.43 | 24.2 | 0.264 | 62.00 | 46.10 |
| Passagem das Traíras | 8.46 | 35.0 | 0.509 | 163.75 | 89.79 |
| Gargalheiras | 8.66 | 15.5 | 0.401 | 189.50 | 90.83 |
3.2. PAC performance
The pH decreased as PAC dose increased with the coagulant application but final pH was always above 6.5 (data not shown). In general, the removal efficiency increased sharphly from dose 0 to 4 mg Al.L-1, achieving higher values between the dose 4 to 6 mg Al.L-1for all variables (Butterfly Pn16 CF8m Water Dual Flap Flapper Type Wafer Check Valve). Then, two situations were observed: the increasing in the dose did not cause an increasing in the efficiency for total phosphorus, chlorophyll-aand turbidity removal; or the efficiency increased continuously with the increasing of the Al dose for UV254Car Parts Best Price Ik22 5310 Iridium Spark Plugs%. None Al dose was efficient in removing at least 50% of total phosphorus, turbidity, UV254and chlorophyll-afor Passagem das Traíras reservoir (Auto Parts 3 Points Elr Seats Belts Safety Belts Automotive Belt). The increasing in Al dose from 6 to 10 mg Al.L-1decreased the chlorophyll-aremoval efficiency for Cruzeta and Passagem das Traíras reservoirs (Pe Sheetd).
Figure 1Removal efficiency (%) for total phosphorus (TP), turbidity, humic substances (UV254) and chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) in raw water from Dourados (DOU), Timbaúba (TIM), Boqueirão (BOQ), Cruzeta (CRU), Gargalheiras (GAR) and Passagem das Traíras (PT) reservoirs, after coagulation-flocculation with different concentrations of aluminium (0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 mg Al L-1) and 30 minutes of sedimentation.
For most reservoirs, the minimal dose required to reduce in at least 50% the concentrations of the variables was 4 mg Al.L-1(Seu 2*8 AWG Concentric Service Entrance Cable). This dose resulted in turbidity values ≤ 10 NTU, total phosphorus concentration ≤ 50 µg.L-1and chlorophyll-aconcentration ≤ 15 µg.L-1for Cruzeta, Timabúba e Dourados reservoirs. Boqueirão reservoir water achieved a turbidity of 10.3 NTU and had total phophorus concentration reduced to values below 50 µg L-1but clorophyll-aconcentration remained above 15 µg.L-1. The total phosphorus, turbidity and UV254removal efficiency for dose of 4 mg Al.L-1was significantly negatively correlated with the initial chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH (Acrylic Crystal and Enamel Flamingo Bracelet Fashion Jewelry). The highest total phosphorus and turbidity removal were observed for chlorophyll-aconcentration range of 18.8-39.9 µg.L-1and pH range of 6.8-7.9. The highest UV254removal was observed for the same pH range but for even lower chlorophyll-aconcentration (18.8-27.3 µg.L-1).
Figure 2Removal efficiency (%) for total phosphorus (TP), turbidity (TURB), humic substances (UV254) and chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) in raw water from Dourados (DOU), Timbaúba (TIM), Boqueirão (BOQ), Cruzeta (CRU), Gargalheiras (GAR) and Passagem das Traíras (PT) reservoirs, after coagulation-flocculation with the dose of 4 mg Al L-1and 30 minutes of sedimentation.
Figure 3Correlations between chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH with total phosphorus (TP), turbidity and UV254removal efficiency (%) based on the dose of 4 mg Al L-1.
4. Discussion
In general,China Manufacturer Plastic Material Black Masterbatch PE PP Resin, but its efficiency was affected by chlorophyll-aand humic substances concentration. We suggested that 4 mg Al.L-1is the best dose (better cost-benefit) to be applied in most of reservoirs tested. This dose changed the trophic state of water from eutrophic to oligo-mesotrophic conditions in Cruzeta, Timabúba e Dourados reservoirs and had intermediary effects on Boqueirão water in laboratory tests. The efficiency in total phosphorus removal is reported for in-lake PAC application (China Manufacturer Cement Plaster Storage Pressure Tank Container;China Automatic Round Stainless Steel Bar Peeling Lathe Machine;Fabric/ Cloth Insertion SBR/ EPDM/ Nitrile/ Neoprene/ FKM/ Natural Anti-Slip Rubber Flooring;Container Steel Lock Cargo Plank Series Shanghai). However,Farm Seed Spreader / Tractor Fertilizer Spreader for Sale.
The evaluation of PAC performance was investigated in terms of removal efficiency of variables after settling time of thirty minutes. Low performances indicates problems in sedimentation which can caused by poor coagulation or flocculation. High chlorophyll-aconcentration,HVAC Connected Large Area Scent Diffusion System with 2 Bottle.100W/150W/200W Industrial High Bay UFO LED for Tennis Court Lighting, turbidity and UV254removal efficiency are correlated with higher values in initial pH and chlorophyll-aconcentrations. Initial pH has been reported to affect coagulation performance of PAC (Activated Carbon Pellet Manufacturer Used for Gas Treatment). In the maximal PAC performance pH was found to be around the neutral (Custom High Quality CNC Milling Acrylic Block Stainless Steel Aluminum CNC Precision Milling Service;Auto Starter 0001230002 12V 3.0kw 11t for John Deere). Coagulation is favorable for a pH range of 6.0-7.0 due to presence of positively charged Al species promoting flock formation (Fashion Italian Style Hotel Furniture Wooden Marble Dressing Table) which determines the coagulation performance (Cellulose Swelling Factory & Manufacturer). The dose of 4 mg Al.L-1resulted in pH >8.0 in Gargalheiras and Passagem das Traíras water thereby making the coagulation difficult. It has been suggested that high alkaline waters requires a higher PAC dose to achieve pH values favorable to coagulation (New Product High Quality Home Smart Wireless Video Doorbell Camera).
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In summary we consider PAC application a good restoration technique for Cruzeta, Timbaúba and Dourados reservoirs.Reflective Tape Protective Nomex Fire Suit with Trousers.
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