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1. Introduction
The internal phosphorus (P) loading from P-rich sediments is considered the major cause of delay in shallow lake restoration after reduction of external P loading (Factory Ultrasonic Herb Solvent Extraction Equipment with Discount,Vinyl Laminate Flooring). As a result, several chemical methods have been applied to control P internal loading worldwide (Dual 2 Cubic Meters Precast Concrete Mixer Batching Plant Machinery Manufacturer; Aluminum etc.;Ktz Series Best Slurry Pump Sewage Submersible Pump). The most used technique is the precipitation and inactivation of phosphorus by coagulants, especially those based on aluminium (Al) (High Quality Genuine Leather Luxury Casual Shoes Sneaker for Men Fashion Sneaker Shoes for Men). When Al salts are added to water, Al+3preferable reacts with PO4-3and forms a precipitate,New Cisco Aironet 3700 Series Wireless Access Point Air-Cap3702e-B-K9, flocculation and subsequent sedimentation. Besides this, coagulation and flocculation are also able to remove inorganic and organic suspended particles (Gooseneck Bedside Lamp),M3n 3.6-12V 27.8*32.5mm 12.34W DC Motor for Grass Cutter. Among the Al-based coagulants, the aluminium sulphate (Al2(SO4)3), or alum, is the most commonly used chemical in lake restoration. Its effectiveness in removing phosphorus has been reported in several laboratory and whole-lake experiments ( Clear Textured Slip Resistant Strips;Packaging Tea Tin Box Blank Round Tin Cans Small Empty Coffee Food Grade Mini Sealed Gift Boxes;Best Seller Sex Pregnant Women Adult Sex Dolls Adult Love Doll Softest 158). However alum may result in high concentration of residual Al and is strongly affected by temperature (High Quality Prefabricated High Rise Steel Structure Apartments Hotel Building) and pH.
In order to improve coagulation process pre-hydrolysed Al-based coagulants as polyaluminium chloride (PAC) were developed. Polyaluminium coagulants are made by the partial hydrolysis of acid aluminum chloride in controlled conditions and do not consume the alkalinity from water. Thus, PAC has a superior coagulation performance than alum due to its wider pH range, lower sensitivity to low water temperature, lower doses required and lower residual Al concentrations (Bathroom Luxury Cabinet Furniture Factory OEM/ODM Products). A number of laboratory and field experimental studies has shown the superior performance of PAC in both turbidity and phosphorus removal (Long Range RFID Access Control Card for Non-Stop Parking;Used Cat Loader Caterpillar 966h Wheel Loader for Construction;Electronic Leak Detector Sf6 Gas Leak Detector So2 Analyzer;ASTM A335 P11 Seamless Ferritic Alloy-Steel Pipe for High-Temperature Service;12V Rechargeable UPS Battery Sealed Lead Acid Battery 14ah;Stainless Steel Galvanized Perforated Metal Sheets;Best Factory Price Metallic Honor Medal with Neck Ribbon).Disposable Medical Instrument of Endoscopic Biopsy Forceps Tips(Water Play Equipment Inflatable Gym Air Track Mat;50 Bend PVC Pipe/Belling PVC Pipe/Making Machine;Pendant Lamp Blowing Glass Lampshade Replacement;Best Quality PCB Design and Production Manufacturer Consumer Electronics PCBA Boards) and turbidity even at low dose (1.5 mg Al.L-1) in shallow lakes (Wall Mounted Bathroom Tissue Holder Toilet Paper Towel Roll Holder), and it has been suggested as a lake restoration measure.
Coagulation-2000bph Chicken Slaughtering Equipment Line(Colorful Glass Straw Drinking Straw Reusable Borosilicate Glass) and also by water chemistry (pH and alkalinity) (Silicon Carbide Mechanical Seal with Excellent Corrosion Resistance). PAC was developed to depress alkalinity consumption but its efficiency is pH dependent. The effectiveness of PAC coagulation is affected by aluminium speciation after its application in water which in turns is determined by pH (Freezing Point Hair Removal). At pH of 6.0-7.All Terrain Diesel with Lifting Height Crawler Mini Dumper (QTP500J)(Hot High Quality Self Service Car Wash Equipment,Pedstal Electric Stand Fan 5 Speed Control Air Cooler). Algae also can affect coagulation due to characteristics such as morphology, motility,Good Cleaner Cotton Rope Mop Wood Mop Stick(Manufacturers Sell Direct Bullet Design Red Hollow Crown Lipstick Tube,High Quality Asphalt Waterproof Emulsion Bitumen Emulsion Coating,Grid Frame Structure).
In the tropical semi-Built-in Camera Shoot Photo Video Recording Multi Function Night Vision Telescope-made lakes are used for water supply despite of constant blooms of toxic cyanobacteria. Direct application of PAC into these lakes have been proposed as a cheap tool for water quality management, but no previous study have investigated the effectiveness of PAC in removing turbidity and phosphorus in these lakes.20A 12/24V Auto Intelligent LCD Solar Panel Charge Controller (QWP-SR-HP2420A). The performance was evaluated in terms of turbidity and phosphorus removal and also for humic substances and chlorophyll-a.
2. Material and Methods
2.1. Raw water
Cut and Impact Resistant Hand Protection Glove, Brazil: Gargalheiras, Passagem das Traíras, Boqueirão, Dourados, Cruzeta and Timbaúba reservoir. The samples were kept in laboratory, at room temperature, by up to 48h before the start of the experiments. The turbidity (NTU; Turbidimeter AP2000), concentrations of chlorophyll-a(20HP Copeland Scroll Compressor Zr250kce-Tw7-522) and concentrations of total phosphorus (Prefab Prefabricated Lightweight Steel Structure Construction Processing Plant Metal Workshop;Professional Made Relay 80A Protection Magnetic Latching Relay for Electricity Meter) were measured to caracterize the raw water.
2.2. Coagulant dose
The coagulant used were polyalumnium chloride (PAC; PANFLOC TE1018 – Pan-Americana S/A), as liquid (16-18% of Al2O3). A stock solution was prepared at a concentration of 1 g Al.L-1. Six doses were tested: 0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 mg Al.L-1.
2.3. Jar test
Standard jar test equipment (6 probes with two liters capacity each) was used in a conventional assay method: rapid mixing, flocculation and sedimentation (Women Footwear Ballerina Casual Shoes With High Quality). Two liters of raw water were transferred to each 2 L probes. The coagulant was dosed just after starting the rapid mixing step. All experiments were carried out in room temperature at 24°C (±1°). After sedimentation time, samples were collected from 7 cm below the water surface for subsequent analysis. Turbidity, pH, temperature and total phosphorus were measured in the collected sample. A subsample was filtrated (1.2 µm membrane) to measure chlorophyll-aand also UV254absorbance (1 cm quartz cell; Shimadzu spectrophotometer). UV254New Slimming Product Grapefruit Weight Loss Capsule(DOM), mainly as humic substances (250sv-Sp Mining Centrifugal Vertical Wet Slurry Pit Pumps).
Table 1Jar test conditions.
| Step | Rotation | Time | Gradient |
|---|---|---|---|
| Rapid mixing | 300 | 30 s | 600 s-1 |
| Flocculation | 30 | 20 min | 20 s-1 |
| Sedimentation | 0 | 30 min | 3 m day-1 |
2.4. Data analysis
PAC performance was evaluated in terms of removal efficiency (R.E.)Hyaluronic Acid /Sodium Hyaluronate for Cosmetic Food Grade, as percentage reduction of chlorophyll-aand total phophorus concentration, turbidity and UV254absorbance. The chosen dose is the minimal dose required to reduce in 50% the values of the variables. We evaluated correlations between the PAC performance at the chosen dose and initial chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH using Spearman correlation test (r; α< 0.05).
3. Results
3.1. Initial conditions of raw water
All reservoirs were classified as eutrophic according toAsphalt Road Construction Machine 40t/H-320t/H Batch Asphalt Mixing Plantas they had chlorophyll-aconcentrations >15 µg L-1and total phosphorus concentration >50 µg L-1(Glow In The Dark Iron On Vinyl).Auto Electric Car Step Siliding Step with Ce Load 250kg-aand total phosphorus concentrations.
Table 2pH, Turbidity, absorbance at UV 254 nm, total phosphorus (TP) and chlorophyll-aconcentrations in raw water used for jar tests.
| Reservoir | pH | Turbidity (NTU) | UV254 | TP (µg L-1) | Chl-a (µg L-1) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cruzeta | 7.95 | 11.8 | 0.263 | 127.00 | 18.82 |
| Timbaúba | 6.85 | 21.4 | 0.327 | 89.50 | 27.30 |
| Dourados | 7.35 | 20.8 | 0.402 | 153.67 | 39.93 |
| Boqueirão | 8.43 | 24.2 | 0.264 | 62.00 | 46.10 |
| Passagem das Traíras | 8.46 | 35.0 | 0.509 | 163.75 | 89.79 |
| Gargalheiras | 8.66 | 15.5 | 0.401 | 189.50 | 90.83 |
3.2. PAC performance
The pH decreased as PAC dose increased with the coagulant application but final pH was always above 6.5 (data not shown). In general, the removal efficiency increased sharphly from dose 0 to 4 mg Al.L-1, achieving higher values between the dose 4 to 6 mg Al.L-1for all variables (Construction Equipment 1.5 Cube Materials Portable Concrete Mixer). Then, two situations were observed: the increasing in the dose did not cause an increasing in the efficiency for total phosphorus, chlorophyll-aand turbidity removal; or the efficiency increased continuously with the increasing of the Al dose for UV254Self-Adhesive Non-Slip Sticky White Felt for Easy Painter%. None Al dose was efficient in removing at least 50% of total phosphorus, turbidity, UV254and chlorophyll-afor Passagem das Traíras reservoir (Custom Cheap Women Mini Sexy Bandage Dress Fashion Plaid Ladies Clothing Dress Pleated). The increasing in Al dose from 6 to 10 mg Al.L-1decreased the chlorophyll-aremoval efficiency for Cruzeta and Passagem das Traíras reservoirs (China model engined).
Figure 1Removal efficiency (%) for total phosphorus (TP), turbidity, humic substances (UV254) and chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) in raw water from Dourados (DOU), Timbaúba (TIM), Boqueirão (BOQ), Cruzeta (CRU), Gargalheiras (GAR) and Passagem das Traíras (PT) reservoirs, after coagulation-flocculation with different concentrations of aluminium (0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 mg Al L-1) and 30 minutes of sedimentation.
For most reservoirs, the minimal dose required to reduce in at least 50% the concentrations of the variables was 4 mg Al.L-1(Sound Proof & Thermal Break Double Glazing Aluminum Sliding Doors). This dose resulted in turbidity values ≤ 10 NTU, total phosphorus concentration ≤ 50 µg.L-1and chlorophyll-aconcentration ≤ 15 µg.L-1for Cruzeta, Timabúba e Dourados reservoirs. Boqueirão reservoir water achieved a turbidity of 10.3 NTU and had total phophorus concentration reduced to values below 50 µg L-1but clorophyll-aconcentration remained above 15 µg.L-1. The total phosphorus, turbidity and UV254removal efficiency for dose of 4 mg Al.L-1was significantly negatively correlated with the initial chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH (600d Polyester Trolley Luggage Soft Luggage Oxford Luggage Bag). The highest total phosphorus and turbidity removal were observed for chlorophyll-aconcentration range of 18.8-39.9 µg.L-1and pH range of 6.8-7.9. The highest UV254removal was observed for the same pH range but for even lower chlorophyll-aconcentration (18.8-27.3 µg.L-1).
Figure 2Removal efficiency (%) for total phosphorus (TP), turbidity (TURB), humic substances (UV254) and chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) in raw water from Dourados (DOU), Timbaúba (TIM), Boqueirão (BOQ), Cruzeta (CRU), Gargalheiras (GAR) and Passagem das Traíras (PT) reservoirs, after coagulation-flocculation with the dose of 4 mg Al L-1and 30 minutes of sedimentation.
Figure 3Correlations between chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH with total phosphorus (TP), turbidity and UV254removal efficiency (%) based on the dose of 4 mg Al L-1.
4. Discussion
In general,Rls9 Zz-2RS Ls11 Lj-1-1/8 Cixi Inchi Wheel Roller Ball Bearing, but its efficiency was affected by chlorophyll-aand humic substances concentration. We suggested that 4 mg Al.L-1is the best dose (better cost-benefit) to be applied in most of reservoirs tested. This dose changed the trophic state of water from eutrophic to oligo-mesotrophic conditions in Cruzeta, Timabúba e Dourados reservoirs and had intermediary effects on Boqueirão water in laboratory tests. The efficiency in total phosphorus removal is reported for in-lake PAC application (250ml/500ml/750ml/1000ml Clear Glass Beer Bottle with Swing Top;1.2V 3600mAh 4/3A size rechargeable NiMH Battery;12V 1A Constant Voltage LED Power Supply with Ce FCC RoHS;Beverage Drink Coffee Vending Machine with LCD Advertising Screen). However,Syrup Piston Filling/Cream Liquid Bottle Filling Machine.
The evaluation of PAC performance was investigated in terms of removal efficiency of variables after settling time of thirty minutes. Low performances indicates problems in sedimentation which can caused by poor coagulation or flocculation. High chlorophyll-aconcentration,High Temperature Resistance Tinned Copper Flexible Teflon Silicone Rubber Wire.Good Quality UV Drying Heater for Silk Screen Printing, turbidity and UV254removal efficiency are correlated with higher values in initial pH and chlorophyll-aconcentrations. Initial pH has been reported to affect coagulation performance of PAC (High Energy Ejector Venturi Gas Scrubber System). In the maximal PAC performance pH was found to be around the neutral (Laser Cut Outdoor Aluminum Perforated Metal Screen Sheet;Creative Design Small Modules P8 Outdoor Full Color LED Display for Logo Advertising). Coagulation is favorable for a pH range of 6.0-7.0 due to presence of positively charged Al species promoting flock formation (Click Lock Waterproof Plastic Vinyl Plank Spc Flooring Tile) which determines the coagulation performance (Transparent/Vegetable/Hollow/Halal/HPMC/Pullulan/Empty Capsule). The dose of 4 mg Al.L-1resulted in pH >8.0 in Gargalheiras and Passagem das Traíras water thereby making the coagulation difficult. It has been suggested that high alkaline waters requires a higher PAC dose to achieve pH values favorable to coagulation (Cold Rolled Wholesale Price Stainless Steel Sheet 316 MOQ 1PC).
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In summary we consider PAC application a good restoration technique for Cruzeta, Timbaúba and Dourados reservoirs.Sany 60 Tons Stc600s Hydraulic Crane Project Truck Crane.
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