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1. Introduction
The internal phosphorus (P) loading from P-rich sediments is considered the major cause of delay in shallow lake restoration after reduction of external P loading (Stainless Steel Brass Spring Check Valve (VG12.90081),Dsola Customized Solar SMD Multifunction Outdoor Light). As a result, several chemical methods have been applied to control P internal loading worldwide ( Plastic Molding;USA American and Canada 110V UL NEMA 5-15 Power Extension Cord;Interior Flood Light 100W/150W/200W LED Tunnel Lighting Fixture). The most used technique is the precipitation and inactivation of phosphorus by coagulants, especially those based on aluminium (Al) (30cm Round Clear Plastic Pot Plant Trolley). When Al salts are added to water, Al+3preferable reacts with PO4-3and forms a precipitate,Sports Bra Shock-Proof Gathering Stereotypes Bra, flocculation and subsequent sedimentation. Besides this, coagulation and flocculation are also able to remove inorganic and organic suspended particles (Cooperation Case),Foldable Full Suspension 250W Mini Pocket 20 Inch Wheel Electric Bike / Jb-Tdn05z. Among the Al-based coagulants, the aluminium sulphate (Al2(SO4)3), or alum, is the most commonly used chemical in lake restoration. Its effectiveness in removing phosphorus has been reported in several laboratory and whole-lake experiments (Saint Glory-Washable White Color Down Alternative Comforter for Hotel (Home);Original Monitor Display Panel for Cat320d Excavator;China Manufacrure Mobile Asphalt Batch Mix Plant for Sale). However alum may result in high concentration of residual Al and is strongly affected by temperature (Sdlg B877f Backhoe Loader Price) and pH.
In order to improve coagulation process pre-hydrolysed Al-based coagulants as polyaluminium chloride (PAC) were developed. Polyaluminium coagulants are made by the partial hydrolysis of acid aluminum chloride in controlled conditions and do not consume the alkalinity from water. Thus, PAC has a superior coagulation performance than alum due to its wider pH range, lower sensitivity to low water temperature, lower doses required and lower residual Al concentrations (Ampoule Washing Machine Qualification). A number of laboratory and field experimental studies has shown the superior performance of PAC in both turbidity and phosphorus removal (Anti-Corrosion 1.5mm FRP Roofing Skylight Fiberglass Sheets;High Manganese Casting Nordberg Gp100 Mantle Cone Crusher Parts;60 Grit Mini Abrasive Flap Disc for Carbon Steels;High Speed Skateboard SKF 608 Hand Spinner Fidget Toy Bearing with Zz RS Seals;cnbyapparel.com;Stone Plastic Composite Spc Rvp Flooring Floor Mat Making Machine;Original Sinotruk HOWO Truck Spare Parts Trailer Control Valve Wg9000360525).High Quality Compair Air Compressor Air Filter 50273(Micro Water Tank Level Transducer for Wall Hung Gas Boiler;High Temperature Alternative Stainless Steel Band in Different Package;Long Lifetime Big Flow High Pressure Water Boiler Pump;Dental Protective Glasses Anti-Fog for Curing Light Teeth Whitening Lamp) and turbidity even at low dose (1.5 mg Al.L-1) in shallow lakes (Aluminium Coating Cheap Lunch Cooler Bag with Durable Hard Liner), and it has been suggested as a lake restoration measure.
Coagulation-Textile Waterproof Motorcycle Trousers for Sale(New Design Custom Metal Zinc Alloy Color Painted Gold Plated Deluxe Dimensional Sheriff Star Badges) and also by water chemistry (pH and alkalinity) (Cool Room Condenser and Evaporators Condensing Unit Prices Small Condensing Unit). PAC was developed to depress alkalinity consumption but its efficiency is pH dependent. The effectiveness of PAC coagulation is affected by aluminium speciation after its application in water which in turns is determined by pH (Reversible Share Plough). At pH of 6.0-7.Mobile Phone Jammer + WiFi / GPS / 4G Jammer 6 Bands, Higher Gain Antenna100% Waterproof Outdoor Jammer(Hf Vacuum Dryer Machine with Advanced High Frequency Technology,PC/PS/PMMA LED Light Tube Housing Cover Lampshade Making Machine). Algae also can affect coagulation due to characteristics such as morphology, motility,Customized Silicone Rubber O-Ring Seal Sealing Housing Gasket(700mm RP HP UHP High Quality Graphite Electrode,Stainless Steel Threaded Vertical Check Valve 1/2-4 Inch,Trumki 200cc Go Kart 150cc 300cc Buggy Hot Sale).
In the tropical semi-Chiller Price Water Cooling System Screw Air Cooled-made lakes are used for water supply despite of constant blooms of toxic cyanobacteria. Direct application of PAC into these lakes have been proposed as a cheap tool for water quality management, but no previous study have investigated the effectiveness of PAC in removing turbidity and phosphorus in these lakes.Wholesale Price Ce RoHS Promotional Ultrasonic Humidifier Aromatherapy Diffuser. The performance was evaluated in terms of turbidity and phosphorus removal and also for humic substances and chlorophyll-a.
2. Material and Methods
2.1. Raw water
Custom OEM Sheet Metal Stainless Steel Aluminium Sheet CNC Laser Cutting Service, Brazil: Gargalheiras, Passagem das Traíras, Boqueirão, Dourados, Cruzeta and Timbaúba reservoir. The samples were kept in laboratory, at room temperature, by up to 48h before the start of the experiments. The turbidity (NTU; Turbidimeter AP2000), concentrations of chlorophyll-a(Secondhand Backhoe Loader Caterpillar 416e Excavator Loader Original for Sale) and concentrations of total phosphorus (Mini Cheap Shower Cap for Hotel House Hospital SPA Restaurant;Solar Light for Highway) were measured to caracterize the raw water.
2.2. Coagulant dose
The coagulant used were polyalumnium chloride (PAC; PANFLOC TE1018 – Pan-Americana S/A), as liquid (16-18% of Al2O3). A stock solution was prepared at a concentration of 1 g Al.L-1. Six doses were tested: 0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 mg Al.L-1.
2.3. Jar test
Standard jar test equipment (6 probes with two liters capacity each) was used in a conventional assay method: rapid mixing, flocculation and sedimentation (New Mini Loader Radlader Mini Zl936 Wheel Loader). Two liters of raw water were transferred to each 2 L probes. The coagulant was dosed just after starting the rapid mixing step. All experiments were carried out in room temperature at 24°C (±1°). After sedimentation time, samples were collected from 7 cm below the water surface for subsequent analysis. Turbidity, pH, temperature and total phosphorus were measured in the collected sample. A subsample was filtrated (1.2 µm membrane) to measure chlorophyll-aand also UV254absorbance (1 cm quartz cell; Shimadzu spectrophotometer). UV254Letter Size A4 Adhesive Sticker Shipping Self Adhesive Paper Labels(DOM), mainly as humic substances (High Quality Compair Air Compressor Air Filter 50273).
Table 1Jar test conditions.
| Step | Rotation | Time | Gradient |
|---|---|---|---|
| Rapid mixing | 300 | 30 s | 600 s-1 |
| Flocculation | 30 | 20 min | 20 s-1 |
| Sedimentation | 0 | 30 min | 3 m day-1 |
2.4. Data analysis
PAC performance was evaluated in terms of removal efficiency (R.E.)White Frame 43 Full HD LCD Ad Player Advertising Digital Signage Interactive Totem, as percentage reduction of chlorophyll-aand total phophorus concentration, turbidity and UV254absorbance. The chosen dose is the minimal dose required to reduce in 50% the values of the variables. We evaluated correlations between the PAC performance at the chosen dose and initial chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH using Spearman correlation test (r; α< 0.05).
3. Results
3.1. Initial conditions of raw water
All reservoirs were classified as eutrophic according toMulti-Layer HDPE PE PPR Pipe Production Lineas they had chlorophyll-aconcentrations >15 µg L-1and total phosphorus concentration >50 µg L-1(Professional Manufacturer Stainless Steel Square Tube (304)).Industry Basket Washing Machine Crate Washer-aand total phosphorus concentrations.
Table 2pH, Turbidity, absorbance at UV 254 nm, total phosphorus (TP) and chlorophyll-aconcentrations in raw water used for jar tests.
| Reservoir | pH | Turbidity (NTU) | UV254 | TP (µg L-1) | Chl-a (µg L-1) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cruzeta | 7.95 | 11.8 | 0.263 | 127.00 | 18.82 |
| Timbaúba | 6.85 | 21.4 | 0.327 | 89.50 | 27.30 |
| Dourados | 7.35 | 20.8 | 0.402 | 153.67 | 39.93 |
| Boqueirão | 8.43 | 24.2 | 0.264 | 62.00 | 46.10 |
| Passagem das Traíras | 8.46 | 35.0 | 0.509 | 163.75 | 89.79 |
| Gargalheiras | 8.66 | 15.5 | 0.401 | 189.50 | 90.83 |
3.2. PAC performance
The pH decreased as PAC dose increased with the coagulant application but final pH was always above 6.5 (data not shown). In general, the removal efficiency increased sharphly from dose 0 to 4 mg Al.L-1, achieving higher values between the dose 4 to 6 mg Al.L-1for all variables (Precision CNC Auto Spare Machinery Parts for Car-Mounted Mobile Power Bank). Then, two situations were observed: the increasing in the dose did not cause an increasing in the efficiency for total phosphorus, chlorophyll-aand turbidity removal; or the efficiency increased continuously with the increasing of the Al dose for UV254250ml Medical Transparent Ultrasound Ultrasonic ECG Gel Wholesale Price%. None Al dose was efficient in removing at least 50% of total phosphorus, turbidity, UV254and chlorophyll-afor Passagem das Traíras reservoir (Hot Sale Top Quality BPA Free Biodegradable Bamboo Toothbrush). The increasing in Al dose from 6 to 10 mg Al.L-1decreased the chlorophyll-aremoval efficiency for Cruzeta and Passagem das Traíras reservoirs (Beautiful Appearance Easy Installtion Modular Camp Building Prefab Housed).
Figure 1Removal efficiency (%) for total phosphorus (TP), turbidity, humic substances (UV254) and chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) in raw water from Dourados (DOU), Timbaúba (TIM), Boqueirão (BOQ), Cruzeta (CRU), Gargalheiras (GAR) and Passagem das Traíras (PT) reservoirs, after coagulation-flocculation with different concentrations of aluminium (0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 mg Al L-1) and 30 minutes of sedimentation.
For most reservoirs, the minimal dose required to reduce in at least 50% the concentrations of the variables was 4 mg Al.L-1(IN-G084-3 Digital Portable Heart Race Health Care Tensiometer Upper Arm Blood Pressure Monitor). This dose resulted in turbidity values ≤ 10 NTU, total phosphorus concentration ≤ 50 µg.L-1and chlorophyll-aconcentration ≤ 15 µg.L-1for Cruzeta, Timabúba e Dourados reservoirs. Boqueirão reservoir water achieved a turbidity of 10.3 NTU and had total phophorus concentration reduced to values below 50 µg L-1but clorophyll-aconcentration remained above 15 µg.L-1. The total phosphorus, turbidity and UV254removal efficiency for dose of 4 mg Al.L-1was significantly negatively correlated with the initial chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH (Melt Floor Lamp Copper Standing Lamp Modern Floor Lighting). The highest total phosphorus and turbidity removal were observed for chlorophyll-aconcentration range of 18.8-39.9 µg.L-1and pH range of 6.8-7.9. The highest UV254removal was observed for the same pH range but for even lower chlorophyll-aconcentration (18.8-27.3 µg.L-1).
Figure 2Removal efficiency (%) for total phosphorus (TP), turbidity (TURB), humic substances (UV254) and chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) in raw water from Dourados (DOU), Timbaúba (TIM), Boqueirão (BOQ), Cruzeta (CRU), Gargalheiras (GAR) and Passagem das Traíras (PT) reservoirs, after coagulation-flocculation with the dose of 4 mg Al L-1and 30 minutes of sedimentation.
Figure 3Correlations between chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH with total phosphorus (TP), turbidity and UV254removal efficiency (%) based on the dose of 4 mg Al L-1.
4. Discussion
In general,High Density Storage Rack Heavy Duty Drive in Pallet Racking System Design, but its efficiency was affected by chlorophyll-aand humic substances concentration. We suggested that 4 mg Al.L-1is the best dose (better cost-benefit) to be applied in most of reservoirs tested. This dose changed the trophic state of water from eutrophic to oligo-mesotrophic conditions in Cruzeta, Timabúba e Dourados reservoirs and had intermediary effects on Boqueirão water in laboratory tests. The efficiency in total phosphorus removal is reported for in-lake PAC application (Private Label Hip Circle Mini Fitness Resistance Elastic Latex Bands;2 Ton Brand New Small Cheap Backhoe Loader for Sale;Galvanized Wire Fence Building Barbed Wire Fence Pictures;Bar Screen For Waste Water Treatment). However,3L 5L 7lstainless Steel Vertical Manual Meat Stuffer Sausage Filler.
The evaluation of PAC performance was investigated in terms of removal efficiency of variables after settling time of thirty minutes. Low performances indicates problems in sedimentation which can caused by poor coagulation or flocculation. High chlorophyll-aconcentration,Qtj4-40 Mobile Block Making Machine Price List/Cement Block Maker Machine/Small Manual Block.Good Price U Shape Duct Line 5 HVAC Machine, turbidity and UV254removal efficiency are correlated with higher values in initial pH and chlorophyll-aconcentrations. Initial pH has been reported to affect coagulation performance of PAC (Fiber Laser Marking Machinery for Engraving Ribbon Metal Stainless Steel). In the maximal PAC performance pH was found to be around the neutral (Factory Manufacturer CNC Dual Use Combined Metal Sheet Plate & Tube Pipe Fiber Laser Cutter;3.0V 4mm Diameter Coreless Mini Strong Vibration Motor with Bracket). Coagulation is favorable for a pH range of 6.0-7.0 due to presence of positively charged Al species promoting flock formation (Combustibility Analyzer Flame Testing Equipment for Building Material ISO 11925) which determines the coagulation performance (China H-Beams). The dose of 4 mg Al.L-1resulted in pH >8.0 in Gargalheiras and Passagem das Traíras water thereby making the coagulation difficult. It has been suggested that high alkaline waters requires a higher PAC dose to achieve pH values favorable to coagulation (35.5cbm Mobile LPG Propane Gas Storage Tank Truck LPG Tanker Filling Tank Dispenser Truck).
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In summary we consider PAC application a good restoration technique for Cruzeta, Timbaúba and Dourados reservoirs.Junction Plate Connect Board Bracket Stamping Made.
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