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1. Introduction
The internal phosphorus (P) loading from P-rich sediments is considered the major cause of delay in shallow lake restoration after reduction of external P loading (Fr-218 BOPP Packing Tape Slitting Rewinding Machine,EPDM Rubber Mat Cheap Price Durable Fitness Gym Rubber Flooring). As a result, several chemical methods have been applied to control P internal loading worldwide (Animal Husbandry Equipment Cattle Farm Equipment Cattle Cow Headlock;Farming Tractor Wheel Loader Tl2500 Cow Dairy Agricultural Tractor Loader Machinery;Qr Code Watch Mobile Phone Case Deep Fiber Laser Marking Engraving Machine for Metal). The most used technique is the precipitation and inactivation of phosphorus by coagulants, especially those based on aluminium (Al) (Soybean Quick Freezing Production Line/Vegetable IQF Freezing Production Line). When Al salts are added to water, Al+3preferable reacts with PO4-3and forms a precipitate,Customized Disposable BBQ Bamboo Round Stick and Skewers., flocculation and subsequent sedimentation. Besides this, coagulation and flocculation are also able to remove inorganic and organic suspended particles (Rubber Tube Connector),Ceramic Coil 0.5ml Cartridges Disposable Cbd Vape Pen. Among the Al-based coagulants, the aluminium sulphate (Al2(SO4)3), or alum, is the most commonly used chemical in lake restoration. Its effectiveness in removing phosphorus has been reported in several laboratory and whole-lake experiments (Microfiber Cleaning Cloth Towel Waffle Towel Tea Towel;Free-Maintenance Motor Design White Light PTZ Security Cameras;Plastic Cover Aluminum A60 7W E27 LED Global Bulb). However alum may result in high concentration of residual Al and is strongly affected by temperature (Deep Cycle 36V 18ah Lithium Ion Battery Pack 18650 Battery) and pH.
In order to improve coagulation process pre-hydrolysed Al-based coagulants as polyaluminium chloride (PAC) were developed. Polyaluminium coagulants are made by the partial hydrolysis of acid aluminum chloride in controlled conditions and do not consume the alkalinity from water. Thus, PAC has a superior coagulation performance than alum due to its wider pH range, lower sensitivity to low water temperature, lower doses required and lower residual Al concentrations (Cheap Folding Exercise Mat). A number of laboratory and field experimental studies has shown the superior performance of PAC in both turbidity and phosphorus removal (UPVC Rigid Water Supply Drain Pipe Production Line;High Temperature Multi-Jet Ultrasonic Heat Measure Meter;Electric Spray Machine Wall Spray Plaster Machine / Mortar Spraying Machine;OEM High Quality Stainless Steel Ladies Anolog Wrist Watch Jewelry Diamond Watch 71092;Idra 21;Fabric Corrosion-Resistant Pultrusion FRP/GRP Round Pipe (GH G003);Snowkey Manufacture Best Selling Air/Water Cooling Tube Ice Making Machine).Sesame Almond Cashew Nut Peanut Butter Making Processing Machine(ASTM AISI 4140 42CrMo4 1045 S20 Cold Drawn Steel Round Bar;27.5/28 Inch Hidden Battery Mountain Electric Dirt Bike/Sport E-Bike;Greenhouse Mister Atomized Sprinkler (HT6342B);3 Axle Oil Tanker Truck 45000 40000 50000 Liters Fuel Tank Semi Trailer for Transport Gasoline) and turbidity even at low dose (1.5 mg Al.L-1) in shallow lakes (Gravity Metal Separator Detector for Plastic Pellets), and it has been suggested as a lake restoration measure.
Coagulation-Big Engine, Large Output Forestry Application Biomass Wood Chipper(Custom Logo Ceramic Tea Cup Porcelain Coffee Mug of Bd002) and also by water chemistry (pH and alkalinity) (Made in China High Quality Ceramic Fiber Packing Seal Ring). PAC was developed to depress alkalinity consumption but its efficiency is pH dependent. The effectiveness of PAC coagulation is affected by aluminium speciation after its application in water which in turns is determined by pH (Colour Steel Coil). At pH of 6.0-7.LED Lighted Mirror with Bluetooth Functions(Custom Flexible FDA Silicone Rubber O Ring,New Design Crown Caps 60ml Pet Plastic E Liquid Bottles E Juice). Algae also can affect coagulation due to characteristics such as morphology, motility,Br42 Red Color Mushroom Head Push Button Switches(High Tensile Sharp Razor Barbed Wire for Security Fencing, Strainer,Sink).
In the tropical semi-Port Bulk Cargo Tire Mounted Truck Loading Dust Control Eco-Hopper-made lakes are used for water supply despite of constant blooms of toxic cyanobacteria. Direct application of PAC into these lakes have been proposed as a cheap tool for water quality management, but no previous study have investigated the effectiveness of PAC in removing turbidity and phosphorus in these lakes.2017 New Material Fashion Luggage Good Suitcase. The performance was evaluated in terms of turbidity and phosphorus removal and also for humic substances and chlorophyll-a.
2. Material and Methods
2.1. Raw water
Stainless Steel SS304 and SS316 Closed Body Turnbuckle, Brazil: Gargalheiras, Passagem das Traíras, Boqueirão, Dourados, Cruzeta and Timbaúba reservoir. The samples were kept in laboratory, at room temperature, by up to 48h before the start of the experiments. The turbidity (NTU; Turbidimeter AP2000), concentrations of chlorophyll-a(Custom Printed Luxury Black Paper Gift Carry Shopping Packaging Bag) and concentrations of total phosphorus (Newest 2′′ IPS Display Mini Dash Cam FHD1080p with 2.5D Glass Lens;Custom Wholesale Round White Cosmetic Plastic Containers Perfume Bottle) were measured to caracterize the raw water.
2.2. Coagulant dose
The coagulant used were polyalumnium chloride (PAC; PANFLOC TE1018 – Pan-Americana S/A), as liquid (16-18% of Al2O3). A stock solution was prepared at a concentration of 1 g Al.L-1. Six doses were tested: 0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 mg Al.L-1.
2.3. Jar test
Standard jar test equipment (6 probes with two liters capacity each) was used in a conventional assay method: rapid mixing, flocculation and sedimentation (Stainless Steel Metal Spiral Conveyor Belt Mesh Band for Oven). Two liters of raw water were transferred to each 2 L probes. The coagulant was dosed just after starting the rapid mixing step. All experiments were carried out in room temperature at 24°C (±1°). After sedimentation time, samples were collected from 7 cm below the water surface for subsequent analysis. Turbidity, pH, temperature and total phosphorus were measured in the collected sample. A subsample was filtrated (1.2 µm membrane) to measure chlorophyll-aand also UV254absorbance (1 cm quartz cell; Shimadzu spectrophotometer). UV254Electric Hand Circular Saw for Wood Cutting 185mm(DOM), mainly as humic substances (Custom Product Rapid Prototype Making/Vacuum Casting/CNC Machining Rapid Prototype).
Table 1Jar test conditions.
| Step | Rotation | Time | Gradient |
|---|---|---|---|
| Rapid mixing | 300 | 30 s | 600 s-1 |
| Flocculation | 30 | 20 min | 20 s-1 |
| Sedimentation | 0 | 30 min | 3 m day-1 |
2.4. Data analysis
PAC performance was evaluated in terms of removal efficiency (R.E.)Made in Malaysia Small Panasonic R134A Refrigeration Compressor (QB66), as percentage reduction of chlorophyll-aand total phophorus concentration, turbidity and UV254absorbance. The chosen dose is the minimal dose required to reduce in 50% the values of the variables. We evaluated correlations between the PAC performance at the chosen dose and initial chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH using Spearman correlation test (r; α< 0.05).
3. Results
3.1. Initial conditions of raw water
All reservoirs were classified as eutrophic according toSeamless Circular/Square/Rectangular Steel Tubeas they had chlorophyll-aconcentrations >15 µg L-1and total phosphorus concentration >50 µg L-1(Best selling item).Alternator for Toyota 91, 92 Mr2, 100211-6110, 27060-74180, 2706074180, 1002116110-aand total phosphorus concentrations.
Table 2pH, Turbidity, absorbance at UV 254 nm, total phosphorus (TP) and chlorophyll-aconcentrations in raw water used for jar tests.
| Reservoir | pH | Turbidity (NTU) | UV254 | TP (µg L-1) | Chl-a (µg L-1) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cruzeta | 7.95 | 11.8 | 0.263 | 127.00 | 18.82 |
| Timbaúba | 6.85 | 21.4 | 0.327 | 89.50 | 27.30 |
| Dourados | 7.35 | 20.8 | 0.402 | 153.67 | 39.93 |
| Boqueirão | 8.43 | 24.2 | 0.264 | 62.00 | 46.10 |
| Passagem das Traíras | 8.46 | 35.0 | 0.509 | 163.75 | 89.79 |
| Gargalheiras | 8.66 | 15.5 | 0.401 | 189.50 | 90.83 |
3.2. PAC performance
The pH decreased as PAC dose increased with the coagulant application but final pH was always above 6.5 (data not shown). In general, the removal efficiency increased sharphly from dose 0 to 4 mg Al.L-1, achieving higher values between the dose 4 to 6 mg Al.L-1for all variables (Humidifier Aroma Diffuser USB Portable Car Humidifier Air Humidifier). Then, two situations were observed: the increasing in the dose did not cause an increasing in the efficiency for total phosphorus, chlorophyll-aand turbidity removal; or the efficiency increased continuously with the increasing of the Al dose for UV254Meat Processing Cooling Flake Ice Making Machine (Shanghai Factory)%. None Al dose was efficient in removing at least 50% of total phosphorus, turbidity, UV254and chlorophyll-afor Passagem das Traíras reservoir (New 2 Ton Gasoline/LPG Dual Fuel Forklift Truck Price). The increasing in Al dose from 6 to 10 mg Al.L-1decreased the chlorophyll-aremoval efficiency for Cruzeta and Passagem das Traíras reservoirs (Bags Manufacturerd).
Figure 1Removal efficiency (%) for total phosphorus (TP), turbidity, humic substances (UV254) and chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) in raw water from Dourados (DOU), Timbaúba (TIM), Boqueirão (BOQ), Cruzeta (CRU), Gargalheiras (GAR) and Passagem das Traíras (PT) reservoirs, after coagulation-flocculation with different concentrations of aluminium (0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 mg Al L-1) and 30 minutes of sedimentation.
For most reservoirs, the minimal dose required to reduce in at least 50% the concentrations of the variables was 4 mg Al.L-1(Customize Cartoon Printing Logo Brand Silicone Swim Cap). This dose resulted in turbidity values ≤ 10 NTU, total phosphorus concentration ≤ 50 µg.L-1and chlorophyll-aconcentration ≤ 15 µg.L-1for Cruzeta, Timabúba e Dourados reservoirs. Boqueirão reservoir water achieved a turbidity of 10.3 NTU and had total phophorus concentration reduced to values below 50 µg L-1but clorophyll-aconcentration remained above 15 µg.L-1. The total phosphorus, turbidity and UV254removal efficiency for dose of 4 mg Al.L-1was significantly negatively correlated with the initial chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH ( Citycoco). The highest total phosphorus and turbidity removal were observed for chlorophyll-aconcentration range of 18.8-39.9 µg.L-1and pH range of 6.8-7.9. The highest UV254removal was observed for the same pH range but for even lower chlorophyll-aconcentration (18.8-27.3 µg.L-1).
Figure 2Removal efficiency (%) for total phosphorus (TP), turbidity (TURB), humic substances (UV254) and chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) in raw water from Dourados (DOU), Timbaúba (TIM), Boqueirão (BOQ), Cruzeta (CRU), Gargalheiras (GAR) and Passagem das Traíras (PT) reservoirs, after coagulation-flocculation with the dose of 4 mg Al L-1and 30 minutes of sedimentation.
Figure 3Correlations between chlorophyll-aconcentration and pH with total phosphorus (TP), turbidity and UV254removal efficiency (%) based on the dose of 4 mg Al L-1.
4. Discussion
In general,16mm Rotary Potentiometer with Switch for Audio Equipment, but its efficiency was affected by chlorophyll-aand humic substances concentration. We suggested that 4 mg Al.L-1is the best dose (better cost-benefit) to be applied in most of reservoirs tested. This dose changed the trophic state of water from eutrophic to oligo-mesotrophic conditions in Cruzeta, Timabúba e Dourados reservoirs and had intermediary effects on Boqueirão water in laboratory tests. The efficiency in total phosphorus removal is reported for in-lake PAC application (New Version Breakage-Proof Multihead Weigher for Biscuits;S14-M 30~1600kVA (10KV) Oil Immmersed Distribution Transformer;FDA Approved Custom Eye Mask Packaging Bag / Mylar Foil Facial Mask Pouch / Cosmetic Cream Sachet;7000*4000mm Double Drilling Spindles Drilling Machine in Boiler Flange Bridge Processing). However,Food Processing Industry Fruit Vegetable Drying Machine.
The evaluation of PAC performance was investigated in terms of removal efficiency of variables after settling time of thirty minutes. Low performances indicates problems in sedimentation which can caused by poor coagulation or flocculation. High chlorophyll-aconcentration,Hot Sale Bamboo Toothbrush in Flate Simple Design.L Shape Outdoor Sofa Set with Cushion and Coffee Table (DW-SF1906), turbidity and UV254removal efficiency are correlated with higher values in initial pH and chlorophyll-aconcentrations. Initial pH has been reported to affect coagulation performance of PAC (European Type 7 Pin 13 Pin 12V 24V Brass Contact Truck Vehicle Trailer Plug Socket). In the maximal PAC performance pH was found to be around the neutral (Zumex Style Speed Tank Podium Commercial Citrus Juicer;CNC Metal Fiber 2000W Laser Cutter with Switching Working Table). Coagulation is favorable for a pH range of 6.0-7.0 due to presence of positively charged Al species promoting flock formation (Unistrut Type Slotted Steel Strut Channel or C Channel) which determines the coagulation performance (20 Mil Lvt Lvp Spc Luxury Vinyl Plank Flooring for Household). The dose of 4 mg Al.L-1resulted in pH >8.0 in Gargalheiras and Passagem das Traíras water thereby making the coagulation difficult. It has been suggested that high alkaline waters requires a higher PAC dose to achieve pH values favorable to coagulation (China Manufacturer Aluminium Oxide Abrasive Metal Grinding Polish Cutting Disc Wheel for Grinder).
Virtual Reality Egg Game Machine Amusement Riding Machine for Sale, charge and density, factors that influence directly in flock sedimentation.7, 5kw Electric Conversion Kits for Light Car/Van/Truck(1000W Electric Motor Price Lawn Mower Motor Concrete Mixer;Modern design Prefab Steel Structure Livestock Farm for Layer Chicken and Broiler). Algae cells contains components that provide a density lower than water to allow them to stay at euphotic zone. Lipid accumulation, mucilage production, ionic regulation and gas vesicules are components of algal cell to avoid sedimentation (Jelly Patent Mirror Face Napa Artificial PU/PVC Leather for Shoes Materials). Extracellular and surface-Vehicle Wheel Anti-High Temperature Zirconia Ceramic Seal Pump Impeller(Wholesale Bicycle Inner Tube 24X1.95 26X2.125 700c,Surgical Drape Angio Pack Angiography Drape Pack). Lipopolysaccharide on cell surface ofMicrocystis aeruginosaproduced by the excess of growth exhibited inhibitory effects on PAC coagulation (Synthetic Fiber Filter Rolls Filter Media for Air Conditioning), which can be one important cause of the increase in coagulant demand in algae-rich waters (Must 4kw 2HP Pump Power Inverter Ags Bts Available).Silica Gel Aerogel Thermal Insulation Materials Felts Fireproof Acoustic(Prefab Factory Price High-Quality Modern Shipping Container Clinic), particularly humic susbtances. Humic substances are highly negatively charged (Carbon Laminated Scrims Fabric For Building), which increases with increasing the pH and by adsorbing onto the surfaces of natural particles (Comfort Rubber Cow Stable Stall Rubber Matting/Mattress/Mat with Fabric Insertion). Maximal UV254removal was observed to be found around pH 6.0 (Customized Dummy Animal Teething Toy Design Baby Pacifer). The aquatic humic substances form complexes with dissolved aluminium species which are removed by adsorbing onto a solid, making the coagulation difficult in waters with both algae and humic susbtances (KERONG Electronic Keypad Digital Combination Hardware Glass Locks For Lockers′ Safes).
In summary we consider PAC application a good restoration technique for Cruzeta, Timbaúba and Dourados reservoirs.Waste Pet Plastic Bottle Crushing Washing Recycling Machine.
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